Archive:New Draft of the Week

The New Draft of the Week is a chance to highlight a recently created Citizendium article that has just started down the road of becoming a Citizendium masterpiece.
It is chosen each week by vote in a manner similar to that of its sister project, the Article of the Week.

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Table of Nominees

Nominated article	Vote Score	Supporters	Specialist supporters	Date created
Clean Air Act (U.S.)	1	Milton Beychok;		2009-06-27

If you want to see how these nominees will look on the CZ home page (if selected as a winner), scroll down a little bit.

Recently created pages are listed on Special:NewPages.

Transclusion of the above nominees (to be done by an Administrator)

• Transclude each of the nominees in the above "Table of Nominee" as per the instructions at Template:Featured Article Candidate.
• Then add the transcluded article to the list in the next section below, using the {{Featured Article Candidate}} template.

View Current Transcluded Nominees (after they have been transcluded by an Administrator)

The next New Draft of the Week will be the article with the most votes at 1 AM UTC on Thursday, 16 July 2009. I did the honors this time. Milton Beychok 01:11, 16 July 2009 (UTC)

Nominated article	Supporters	Specialist supporters	Dates	Score
Clean Air Act (U.S.): A law enacted by the U.S. Congress that defines the responsibilities of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer. [e] The metadata subpage is missing. You can start it via filling in this form or by following the instructions that come up after clicking on the [show] link to the right. Do you see this on PREVIEW? then SAVE! before following a link. To find out more about the use of metadata for the management of Citizendium pages, see CZ:Metadata. You may see this box for one of two reasons. Either: A - New page has been created, or subpages template was added to an existing page B - Cluster move is in progress Click either the A or B link for further instructions. [Feel free to recommend improvements to the text or links in this template] A - For a New Cluster use the following directions Subpages format requires a metadata page. Using the following instructions will complete the process of creating this article's subpages. Click the blue "metadata template" link below to create the page. On the edit page that appears paste in the article's title across from "pagename =". You might also fill out the checklist part of the form. Ignore the rest. For background, see Using the Subpages template Don't worry--you'll get the hang of it right away. Remember to hit Save! the "metadata template". However, you can create articles without subpages. Just delete the {{subpages}} template from the top of this page and this prompt will disappear. :) Don't feel obligated to use subpages, it's more important that you write sentences, which you can always do without writing fancy code. [Feel free to recommend improvements to the text or links in this template] B - For a Cluster Move use the following directions The metadata template should be moved to the new name as the first step. Please revert this move and start by using the Move Cluster link at the top left of the talk page. The name prior to this move can be found at the following link. [Feel free to recommend improvements to the text or links in this template] (PD) Photo: Jon Sullivan, www.pdphoto.org Poor air quality over Los Angeles (August, 2003) See also: National Ambient Air Quality Standards The Clean Air Act is a law enacted by the U.S. Congress that defines the responsibilities of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer. The latest major amendments were enacted as the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (Public Law 101–549). The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 were preceded by various other pieces of legislation enacted by the U.S. Congress dating back to the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955. Implementation of the Act In the same year that Congress created the Clean Air Act of 1970 (see History section below), Congress also created the U.S. EPA and gave it the primary role in carrying out the law. Since 1970, the U.S. EPA has been responsible for a variety of programs to reduce air pollution nationwide. However, the environmental regulatory agencies of the states, Indian tribes and local governments do a lot of the work to meet the Act's requirements. Those agencies work with industrial and commercial companies to reduce air pollution. They also review and approve permit applications for construction and operation of industrial plants and commercial facilities involving sources of air pollution. They are able to develop solutions for pollution problems that require special understanding of local industries, geography, housing, and travel patterns, as well as other factors. State, local, and tribal governments also monitor air quality, inspect facilities under their jurisdictions and enforce Clean Air Act regulations. States must also develop State Implementation Plans (SIPs) that outline how each state will control air pollution under the Clean Air Act. An SIP is a collection of the regulations, programs and policies that a state will use to clean up polluted areas. In developing their SIPs, the states must involve the public and industries through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each state plan. Contents of the Act Legislation enacted by the U.S. Congress since 1990 has made several minor changes in the Act. The current version, including amendments through February 24, 2004, is available on the Internet. This is a listing of its major parts: Title I - Air Pollution Prevention and Control Part A - Air Quality and Emission Limitations (CAA § 101-131; USC § 7401-7431 ) Part B - Ozone Protection (replaced by Title VI) Part C - Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality (CAA § 160-169b; USC § 7470-7492) Part D - Plan Requirements for Nonattainment Areas (CAA § 171-193; USC § 7501-7515) Title II - Emission Standards for Moving Sources Part A - Motor Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards (CAA § 201-219; USC § 7521-7554) Part B - Aircraft Emission Standards (CAA § 231-234; USC § 7571-7574) Part C - Clean Fuel Vehicles (CAA § 241-250; USC § 7581-7590) Title III - General (CAA § 301-328; USC § 7601-7627) Title IV - Acid Deposition Control (CAA § 401-416; USC § 7651-7651o) Title V - Permits (CAA § 501-507; USC § 7661-7661f ) Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection (CAA § 601-618; USC § 7671-7671q ) Key elements of the act The U.S. EPA's mission is to protect human health and the environment. To achieve this mission, EPA implemented a variety of programs under the Clean Air Act that focus on: Reducing outdoor ambient concentrations of air pollutants that cause smog, haze, acid rain, and other problems Reducing emissions of toxic air pollutants that are known to, or are suspected of, causing cancer or other serious health effects Phasing out production and use of chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone. The above programs have required the development of specific regulations by the U.S. EPA and the state, tribal and local governments to limit the emissions of air pollutants from mobile sources (like automotive vehicles and airplanes) and stationary sources (like petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical manufacturing plants, power plants, and gas or petrol stations). More specifics concerning each of the above programs are available on the Internet. What the Clean Air Act has accomplished The implementation of the Clean Air Act has accomplished very significant reductions in the emission of air pollutants during the period of 1970 – 2008. The reductions were accomplished despite even larger increases in activities, during that same period, that produce air pollutants as measured by the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP), consumption of energy, and usage of automobiles. The details of that accomplishment are presented in the two tables below: Air pollutant emission reductions (1970 – 2008) Pollutant Emissions Reductions Criteria air pollutants More than 50% Toxic air pollutants Nearly 70% Automobile emissions More than 90% Activities that produce air pollutants (1970 – 2008) Factors Increases Gross Domestic Product 200 % Energy consumption 50% Automobile usage Almost 200% History In October 1948, a cloud of air pollution formed above the industrial town of Donora, Pennsylvania and lingered for five days. It caused sickness in 6,000 of the town's 14,000 people and the death of 20 people. Four years later, in 1952, over 3,000 people died in what became known as London's "Killer Fog". Events like those led to the enactment of several federal and state laws which established funding for the study and the cleanup of air pollution. But there was no comprehensive federal response to address air pollution until Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 and created the U.S. EPA. In 1990, Congress amended and greatly expanded the Clean Air Act, providing EPA even broader authority to implement and enforce regulations reducing air pollutant emissions. The 1990 Amendments also placed an increased emphasis on more cost-effective approaches to reduce air pollution. The principal milestones in the evolution of the Clean Air Act are: The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal legislation that involved air pollution. It funded research of air pollution and state assistance resources. Clean Air Act of 1963 The Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal legislation regarding air pollution control. It established a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorized research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution. It included grants to the states for developing state and local air pollution control programs. In 1966, the Clean Air Act was extended to add the authority for grants to maintain state and local programs rather than just develop them. Air Quality Act of 1967 In 1967, an Air Quality Act was enacted in order to expand federal government activities. In accordance with this law, enforcement proceedings were initiated in areas subject to interstate air pollution transport. As part of these proceedings, the federal government for the first time conducted extensive ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections. The Air Quality Act of 1967 also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. Clean Air Act 1970 The enactment of the Clean Air Act of 1970 constituted a major change of the federal government's role in air pollution control. It authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from stationary industrial sources and from mobile sources. Four major regulatory programs involving stationary sources were initiated: Establishment of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Establishment of State Implementation Plans (SIPs) to achieve the National Ambient Air Quality Standards Establishment of New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for new and modified stationary sources Establishment of National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) It also authorized requirements for the control of automotive vehicle emissions (i.e., mobile sources). Furthermore, the authority to enforce air quality standards and air pollution emission controls was substantially expanded. As mentioned above, the EPA was created at about the same time in order to implement the various requirements included in the Clean Air Act of 1970. 1977 Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970 The 1977 Amendments established major review requirements to ensure the attainment and maintenance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. It codified provisions for the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program. It also codified requirements pertaining to air pollution sources in geographical areas called "non-attainment areas" because they had not attained on or more of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970 Another set of major amendments to the Clean Air Act were enacted in 1990 that substantially increased the authority and responsibility of the federal government. New regulatory programs were authorized for: Control of acid deposition (acid rain) Established the requirements for stationary source operating permits Established a program to control 189 toxic air pollutants, including those previously regulated by the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS) The provisions for attainment and maintenance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards were significantly modified and expanded. Other revisions involved stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority, and expanded research programs. References  (Read more...)	Milton Beychok;		1

Current Winner (to be selected and implemented by an Administrator)

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Do you see this on PREVIEW? then SAVE! before following a link. To find out more about the use of metadata for the management of Citizendium pages, see CZ:Metadata. You may see this box for one of two reasons. Either: A - New page has been created, or subpages template was added to an existing page B - Cluster move is in progress Click either the A or B link for further instructions. [Feel free to recommend improvements to the text or links in this template] A - For a New Cluster use the following directions Subpages format requires a metadata page. Using the following instructions will complete the process of creating this article's subpages. Click the blue "metadata template" link below to create the page. On the edit page that appears paste in the article's title across from "pagename =". You might also fill out the checklist part of the form. Ignore the rest. For background, see Using the Subpages template Don't worry--you'll get the hang of it right away. Remember to hit Save! the "metadata template". However, you can create articles without subpages. Just delete the {{subpages}} template from the top of this page and this prompt will disappear. :) Don't feel obligated to use subpages, it's more important that you write sentences, which you can always do without writing fancy code. [Feel free to recommend improvements to the text or links in this template] B - For a Cluster Move use the following directions The metadata template should be moved to the new name as the first step. Please revert this move and start by using the Move Cluster link at the top left of the talk page. The name prior to this move can be found at the following link. [Feel free to recommend improvements to the text or links in this template]

---

PD Image
Energy of the hot gas flame flows into the kettle and the liquid water in it.

Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between two bodies that are in thermal contact and have different temperatures. For instance, the bodies may be two compartments of a vessel separated by a heat-conducting wall and containing fluids of different temperatures on either side of the wall. Or one body may consist of hot radiating gas and the other may be a kettle with cold water, as shown in the picture. Heat flows spontaneously from the higher-temperature to the lower-temperature body. The effect of this transfer of energy usually, but not always, is an increase in the temperature of the colder body and a decrease in the temperature of the hotter body.

Change of aggregation state

A vessel containing a fluid may lose or gain energy without a change in temperature when the fluid changes from one aggregation state to another. For instance, a gas condensing to a liquid does this at a certain fixed temperature (the boiling point of the liquid) and releases condensation energy. When a vessel, containing a condensing gas, loses heat to a colder body, then, as long as there is still vapor left in it, its temperature remains constant at the boiling point of the liquid, even while it is losing heat to the colder body. In a similar way, when the colder body is a vessel containing a melting solid, its temperature will remain constant while it is receiving heat from a hotter body, as long as not all solid has been molten. Only after all of the solid has been molten and the heat transport continues, the temperature of the colder body (then containing only liquid) will rise.

For example, the temperature of the tap water in the kettle shown in the figure will rise quickly to the boiling point of water (100 °C). Then, when the flame is not switched off, the temperature inside the kettle remains constant at 100 °C for quite some time, even though heat keeps on flowing from flame to kettle. When all liquid water has evaporated—when the kettle has boiled dry—the temperature of the kettle will quickly rise again until it obtains the temperature of the burning gas, then the heat flow will finally stop. (Most likely, though, the handle and maybe the metal of the kettle, too, will have melted before that).

Units

At present the unit for the amount of heat is the same as for any form of energy. Before the equivalence of mechanical work and heat was clearly recognized, two units were used. The calorie was the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5 to 15.5 °C and the unit of mechanical work was basically defined by force times path length (in the old cgs system of units this is erg). Now there is one unit for all forms of energy, including heat. In the International System of Units (SI) it is the joule, but the British Thermal Unit and calorie are still occasionally used. The unit for the rate of heat transfer is the watt (J/s).

Equivalence of heat and work

Although heat and work are forms of energy that both obey the law of conservation of energy, they are not completely equivalent. Work can be completely converted into heat, but the converse is not true. When converting heat into work, part of the heat is not—and cannot be—converted to work, but flows to the body of lower temperature that is out of necessity present to generate a heat flow.

Heat and temperature

The important distinction between heat and temperature (heat being a form of energy and temperature a measure of the amount of that energy present in a body) was clarified by Count Rumford, James Prescott Joule, Julius Robert Mayer, Rudolf Clausius, and others during the late 18th and 19th centuries. Also it became clear by the work of these men that heat is not an invisible and weightless fluid, named caloric, as was thought by many 18th century scientists, but a form of motion. The molecules of the hotter body are (on the average) in more rapid motion than those of the colder body. The first law of thermodynamics, discovered around the middle of the 19th century, states that the (flow of) heat is a transfer of part of the internal energy of the bodies. In the case of ideal gases, internal energy consists only of kinetic energy and it is indeed only this motional energy that is transferred when heat is exchanged between two containers with ideal gases. In the case of non-ideal gases, liquids and solids, internal energy also contains the averaged inter-particle potential energy (attraction and repulsion between molecules), which depends on temperature. So, for non-ideal gases, liquids and solids, also potential energy is transferred when heat transfer occurs.

Forms of heat

The actual transport of heat may proceed by electromagnetic radiation (as an example one may think of an electric heater where usually heat is transferred to its surroundings by infrared radiation, or of a microwave oven where heat is given off to food by microwaves), conduction (for instance through a metal wall; metals conduct heat by the aid of their almost free electrons), and convection (for instance by air flow or water circulation).

Entropy

If two systems, 1 (cold) and 2 (hot), are isolated from the rest of the universe (i.e., no other heat flows than from 2 to 1 and no work is performed on the two systems) then the entropy S_tot = S₁ + S₂ of the total system 1 + 2 increases upon the spontaneous flow of heat. This is in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics that states that spontaneous thermodynamic processes are associated with entropy increase. In general, the entropy S of a system at absolute temperature T increases with

$\Delta S={\frac {Q}{T}}$

when it receives an amount of heat Q > 0. Entropy is an additive (size-extensive) property.

The hotter system 2 loses an amount of heat to the colder system 1. In absolute value the exchanged amounts of heat are the same by the law of conservation of energy (no energy escapes to the rest of the universe), hence

$\Delta S_{\mathrm {tot} }=\Delta S_{1}+\Delta S_{2}=Q\left({\frac {1}{T_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{T_{2}}}\right)>0\quad {\hbox{because}}\quad T_{2}>T_{1}.$

Here it is assumed that the amount of heat Q is so small that the temperatures of the two systems are constant. One can achieve this by considering a small time interval of heat exchange and/or very large systems.

Remark: the expression ΔS = Q/T is only strictly valid for a reversible (also known as quasistatic) flow of energy. It is possible to define:

$\Delta S\equiv \Delta S_{\mathrm {ext} }+\Delta S_{\mathrm {int} }\quad {\hbox{with}}\quad \Delta S_{\mathrm {ext} }\equiv {\frac {Q}{T}}\quad {\hbox{and}}\quad \Delta S_{\mathrm {int} }\geq 0$

It is assumed that ΔS_int is much smaller than ΔS_ext, so that it can be neglected.

Semantic caveats

It is strictly speaking not correct to say that a hot object "possesses much heat"—it is correct to say, however, that it possesses high internal energy. The word "heat" is reserved to describe the process of transfer of energy from a high temperature object to a lower temperature one (in short called "heating of the cold object"). The reason that the word "heat" is to be avoided for the internal energy of an object is that the latter can have been acquired either by heating or by work done on it (or by both). When we measure internal energy, there is no way of deciding how the object acquired it—by work or by heat. In the same way as one does not say that a hot object "possesses much work", one does not say that it "possesses much heat". Yet, terms as "heat reservoir" (a system of temperature higher than its environment that for all practical purposes is infinite) and "heat content" (a synonym for enthalpy) are commonly used and are incorrect by the same reasoning.

The molecules of a hot body are in agitated motion and, as said, it cannot be measured how they became agitated, by work or by heat. Often, especially outside physics, the random molecular motion is referred to as "thermal energy". In classical (phenomenological) thermodynamics this is an intuitive, but undefined, concept. In statistical thermodynamics, thermal energy could be defined (but rarely ever is) as the average kinetic energy of the molecules constituting the body. Kinetic and potential energy of molecules are concepts that are foreign to classical thermodynamics, which predates the general acceptance of the existence of molecules.

Quotation

As a result Carathéodory was able to obtain the laws of thermodynamics without recourse to fictitious machines or objectionable concepts as the flow of heat.

Reference

(Read more...)

Previous Winners

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•  Martin Luther: German theologian and monk (1483-1546); led the Reformation; believed that salvation is granted on the basis of faith rather than deeds. ^[e] (20 February)
•  Cosmology: A branch of astronomy and of metaphysics committed to the study of the universe as a whole, of the contents, structure, and evolution of the universe from the beginning of time to the future. ^[e] (4 February)
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•  Edinburgh: Add brief definition or description (21 January)
•  Russian Revolution of 1905: Add brief definition or description (8 January 2008)
•  Phosphorus: Add brief definition or description (31 December)
•  John Tyler: Add brief definition or description (6 December)
•  Banana: Add brief definition or description (22 November)
•  Augustin-Louis Cauchy: Add brief definition or description (15 November)
• B-17: Add brief definition or description - 8 November 2007
•  Red Sea Urchin: Add brief definition or description - 1 November 2007
•  Symphony: Add brief definition or description - 25 October 2007
•  Oxygen: Add brief definition or description - 18 October 2007
•  Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal: Add brief definition or description - 11 October 2007
•  Fossilization (palaeontology): Add brief definition or description - 4 October 2007
•  Cradle of Humankind: Add brief definition or description - 27 September 2007
•  John Adams: Add brief definition or description - 20 September 2007
•  Quakers: Add brief definition or description - 13 September 2007
•  Scarborough Castle: Add brief definition or description - 6 September 2007
•  Jane Addams: Add brief definition or description - 30 August 2007
•  Epidemiology: Add brief definition or description - 23 August 2007
•  Gay community: Add brief definition or description - 16 August 2007
•  Edward I: Add brief definition or description - 9 August 2007

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• In the event of two or more having the same number of votes :
  • The article with the most specialist supporters is used. Should this fail to produce a winner, the article appearing first by English alphabetical order is used.
    
  • The remaining winning articles are guaranteed this position in the following weeks, again in alphabetical order. No further voting should take place on these, which remain at the top of the table with notices to that effect. Further nominations and voting take place to determine future winning articles for the following weeks.
  • Winning articles may be named New Draft of the Week beyond their last eligible date if their circumstances are so described above.

Administrators

The Administrators of this program are the same as the admins for CZ:Article of the Week.

See Also

• CZ:Article of the Week
• CZ:Markup tags for partial transclusion of selected text in an article
• CZ:Monthly Write-a-Thon