|
|
| (26 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| A '''standards organization''' is a company, or consortium of companies, that develops and amends technical standards for inter-operability of hardware or software created by different companies. To make standards useful, the standards organization must also provide, or cause to be provided, a way to test products and certify whether they are compliant with a standard or not. Compliance with standards is sometimes voluntary, but some standards become mandatory when they are adopted by regulators as legal requirements in particular domains, often for the purpose of safety or for consumer protection from deceitful practices. It is regulatory standards, for example, that result in widely usable light-bulb sockets, electrical outlets, safety certifications for electrical equipment, etc.
| |
|
| |
|
| A ''formal'' standard has been approved by the standards-setting organization. A ''de jure'' standard is mandated by legal requirements and may also refer to any formal standard. In contrast, a ''de facto'' is a standard that has achieved widespread use and acceptance without having been approved by any standards organization.
| | {{Infobox book |
| | | image = Germaine Greer - The Female Eunuch.jpg |
| | | border = yes |
| | | caption = Cover of the first edition |
| | | author = [[Germaine Greer]] |
| | | country = United Kingdom |
| | | language = English |
| | | series = |
| | | published = 1970 |
| | | publisher = MacGibbon & Kee |
| | | media_type = Print (hardcover and paperback) |
| | | pages = |
| | | isbn = 0-374-52762-8 |
| | | dewey = 305.42 21 |
| | | congress = HQ1206 .G77 2001 |
| | | oclc = 46574483 |
| | | followed_by = The Whole Woman |
| | }} |
|
| |
|
| ==History== | | '''''The Female Eunuch''''' is a 1970 book by [[Germaine Greer]] that became an international [[bestseller]] and an important text in the [[feminist]] movement. Greer's thesis is that the "traditional" [[suburb]]an, [[consumerism|consumerist]], [[nuclear family]] represses women sexually, and that this devitalises them, rendering them [[eunuch]]s. The book was published in London in October 1970. It received a mixed reception, but by March 1971, it had nearly sold out its second printing. It has been translated into eleven languages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilde |first=W. H. |author2=Hooton, Joy |author3=Andrews, Barry |title= The Oxford companion to Australian Literature|orig-year=1985|edition=2nd |year= 1994|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Melbourne|isbn=0-19-553381-X |quote= ... the book became almost a [[sacred text]] for the international women's liberation movement of the 1970s, notwithstanding sporadic criticism of aspects of its [[ideology]] from some feminists.|page=271 }}</ref> |
|
| |
|
| ===Standardization===
| | A sequel to ''The Female Eunuch'', entitled ''The Whole Woman'', was published in 1999.<ref>Greer. ''The Whole Woman'' Doubleday, {{ISBN|0-385-60016-X}}</ref> |
| [[File:JFIScrewThread300.png|thumb|right|Graphic representation of formulae for the pitches of threads of screw bolts]]
| |
| The implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the need for high-precision [[machine tool]]s and [[interchangeable parts]]. [[Henry Maudslay]] developed the first industrially practical [[screw-cutting lathe]] in 1800, which allowed for the standardization of [[screw thread]] sizes for the first time.<ref name="Ping">{{citation|url=https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/brief-history-standards-and-standardization-organizations-chinese-perspective|title=A Brief History of Standards and Standardization Organizations: A Chinese Perspective|author=Wang Ping|publisher=[[East–West Center]] |date=April 2011}}</ref> | |
|
| |
|
| Maudslay's work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization; some companies' in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. [[Joseph Whitworth]]'s screw thread measurements were adopted as the first (unofficial) national standard by companies around the country in 1841. It came to be known as the [[British Standard Whitworth]], and was widely adopted in other countries.<ref>Gilbert, K. R., & Galloway, D. F., 1978, "Machine Tools". In [[Charles Singer]], et al., (Eds.), ''A History of Technology''. Oxford, Clarendon Press</ref><ref>[[Sidney Lee|Lee, Sidney]] (Ed.), 1900, ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=tzsJAAAAIAAJ Vol LXI]. Smith Elder, London</ref>
| | ==Summary== |
| | The book is a [[Feminism|feminist]] analysis, written with a mixture of [[polemic]] and scholarly research. It was a key text of the feminist movement in the 1970s, broadly discussed and criticised by other feminists and the wider community, particularly through the author's high profile in the broadcast media. In sections titled "Body", "Soul", "Energy", "Love" and "Hate" Greer examines historical definitions of women's perception of [[Self (psychology)|self]] and uses a premise of imposed limitations to critique modern [[consumer]] societies, [[female]] "[[Norm (sociology)|normality]]", and [[masculinity|masculine]] shaping of [[stereotype]]s quoting, "The World has lost its soul, and I my sex."<ref name="Greer, Germaine 2006">Greer, Germaine. ''The Female Eunuch''. UK: Harper Perennial, 2006.</ref> In contrast to earlier feminist works, Greer uses humour, boldness, and coarse language to present a direct and candid description of female sexuality, much of this subject having remained undiscussed in English-speaking societies. Greer's irreverence towards [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[psychoanalysis]] was inspired by [[Simone de Beauvoir]]'s ''[[The Second Sex]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Webster, Richard |title=Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis |publisher=The Orwell Press |location=Oxford |year=2005 |page=22 |isbn=0-9515922-5-4}}</ref> The work bridged academia and the contemporary arts in presenting the targets of the final section of the book, ''Revolution''; it is in accord, and often associated with, a creative and revolutionary movement of the period. |
|
| |
|
| ===Early standards organizations===
| | Greer argues that men hate women, though the latter do not realise this and are taught to hate themselves.<ref>Wallace 1997</ref> |
| By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies was making trade increasingly difficult and strained. For instance, an iron and steel dealer recorded his displeasure in ''[[The Times]]'': "Architects and engineers generally specify such unnecessarily diverse types of sectional material or given work that anything like economical and continuous manufacture becomes impossible. In this country no two professional men are agreed upon the size and weight of a [[girder]] to employ for given work".
| |
|
| |
|
| The [[BSI Group|Engineering Standards Committee]] was established in London in 1901 as the world's first national standards body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bsigroup.com/upload/Corporate%20Marketing/Financial%20Performance/BSI_Group_Annual_Report_and_Financial_Statements_2010.pdf |title=BSI Group Annual Report and Financial Statements 2010, p. 2|access-date=2012-04-03}}</ref><ref name="Robert C McWilliam 2001">Robert C. McWilliam. ''BSI: The First Hundred Years. 1901–2001. A Century of Achievement''. 2001. Thanet Press. London</ref> It subsequently extended its standardization work and became the British Engineering Standards Association in 1918, adopting the name British Standards Institution in 1931 after receiving its Royal Charter in 1929. The national standards were adopted universally throughout the country, and enabled the markets to act more rationally and efficiently, with an increased level of cooperation.
| | In her final title labelled ''Revolution'', Greer argues that change had to come about via [[Social revolution|revolution]], not evolution. Women should get to know and come to accept their own bodies, taste their own menstrual blood, and give up [[celibacy]] and [[monogamy]]. Yet they should not burn their bras. "Bras are a ludicrous invention", she wrote, "but if you make bralessness a rule, you're just subjecting yourself to yet another repression."<ref>Foreword to the Paladin 21st Anniversary Edition, 2006.</ref> Greer complains of the "genteel, middle-class ladies" who sit on women's rights committees and spend their time signing petitions to achieve equality. Greer expresses that to gain equality a woman must not be genteel but she should instead seek revolution. |
| | In a foreword added to the 21st anniversary edition, Greer references the loss of women's freedom with the "sudden death of communism" (1989) as catapult for women the world over for a sudden transition into consumer Western society wherein there is little to no protection for mothers and the disabled; here, there is no freedom to speak: |
|
| |
|
| After the [[First World War]], similar national bodies were established in other countries. The [[Deutsches Institut für Normung]] was set up in Germany in 1917, followed by its counterparts, the American [[American National Standards Institute|National Standard Institute]] and the French [[AFNOR|Commission Permanente de Standardisation]], both in 1918.<ref name="Ping" />
| | <blockquote>The freedom I pleaded for twenty years ago was freedom to be a person, with dignity, integrity, nobility, passion, pride that constitute personhood. Freedom to run, shout, talk loudly and sit with your knees apart. Freedom to know and love the earth and all that swims, lies, and crawls upon it ... most of the women in the world are still afraid, still hungry, still mute and loaded by religion with all kinds of fetters, masked, muzzled, mutilated and beaten.<ref>{{cite book |author=Greer, Germaine |title=The Female Eunuch |publisher=Flamingo |location=London |year=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/femaleeunuc000gree/page/11 11] |isbn=0-586-08055-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/femaleeunuc000gree/page/11 }}</ref></blockquote> |
|
| |
|
| ===International organizations=== | | ==Reception== |
| Several [[international organizations]] create [[international standards]], such as [[Codex Alimentarius]] in food, the [[World Health Organization]] Guidelines in health, or [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] Recommendations in [[Information and communications technology|ICT]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/publications/guidelines/en/|title=WHO {{!}} WHO guidelines approved by the Guidelines Review Committee|website=WHO|access-date=2019-08-21}}</ref> and being publicly funded, are freely available for consideration and use worldwide.
| | [[File:Crop (2) of Camille Paglia no Fronteiras do Pensamento São Paulo 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Camille Paglia]] is an ardent fan of ''The Female Eunuch'', highlighting Greer's "brilliant and aggressive voice".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afr.com/life-and-luxury/arts-and-culture/germaine-greer-professional-contrarian-nature-lover-and-feminist-20180611-h117ny|title=Germaine Greer: professional contrarian, nature lover, and feminist|work=[[Australian Financial Review]]|date=22 June 2018|accessdate=16 January 2023}}</ref>]] |
| | In a 1971 interview, Greer said of her book that "The title is an indication of the problem. Women have somehow been separated from their libido, from their faculty of desire, from their sexuality. They've become suspicious about it. Like beasts, for example, who are castrated in farming in order to serve their master's ulterior motives—to be fattened or made docile—women have been cut off from their capacity for action. It's a process that sacrifices vigor for delicacy and succulence, and one that's got to be changed."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/03/22/archives/germaine-greer-opinions-that-may-shock-the-faithful.html |title=Germaine Greer -- Opinions That May Shock the Faithful |first=Judith |last=Weinraub |date=22 March 1971 |work=[[The New York Times]] |at=food fashions family furnishings section, page 28 |archive-url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/05/09/specials/greer-shock.html |archive-date=5 October 2016}}</ref> In January 1972 ''[[The Age]]''{{'}}s reviewer [[Thelma Forshaw]] described ''The Female Eunuch'' as "the orchestrated over-the-back-fence grizzle ... based on the curious fancy ... we were all men, and then some fiend castrated half of us and gave us a ghastly internal bookie's bag called a womb".<ref name="Ricketson">{{cite book | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ShkiqPn_tToC&pg=PA53 | title = The Best Australian Profiles | chapter = Germaine Greer | last = Dunstan | first = Keith | author-link = Keith Dunstan | editor = Matthew Ricketson | page = 53 | location = Melbourne, Vic | publisher = Black Inc | year = 2004 | isbn = 9781863952934 }}</ref> The newspaper declared that the review "has stirred up a considerable controversy".<ref name="Age1">{{cite news | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19720120&id=neFUAAAAIBAJ&pg=5321,3108293 | title = Letters to the Editor | page = 8 | work = [[The Age]] | publisher = [[Fairfax Media]] | date = 20 January 1972 | access-date = 13 November 2012 }}</ref> According to the journalist [[Keith Dunstan]], "[t]he reviews of [the book] were extremely mixed. The most famous was by [Forshaw] of ''The Age''".<ref name="Ricketson"/> Dunstan contrasted this with a positive review by [[Sylvia Lawson]] of ''[[The Australian]]'', "[it has] been greeted in Australia with some fantastically myopic, complacent and resentful printed comment ... [the book] is neither dogmatic nor complacent, neither strident nor paranoic ... [it is] ranging, exploratory and questioning".<ref name="Ricketson"/> |
|
| |
|
| ===International standards associations===
| | [[Laura Miller (writer)|Laura Miller]] of ''[[Salon (website)|Salon]]'' described the book as a "fitful, passionate, scattered text, not cohesive enough to qualify as a manifesto. It's all over the place, impulsive, and fatally naive—which is to say it is the quintessential product of its time."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/06/22/greer | title = Germaine Greer | access-date = 2007-05-22 | author = Laura Miller | date= 1999-06-22 | work = Brilliant Careers | publisher = Salon | pages = 1 of 2 | quote = They didn't become megastars, but they became a librarian or something. I've heard women say again and again when the subject of Germaine comes up: 'Well, her book changed my life for the better.' And they'll be modest women living pretty ordinary lives, but better lives." Women entirely unlike Germaine Greer, the feminist who improved the world in spite of herself. }}</ref> The neuroscientist [[Simon LeVay]] wrote in ''[[Queer Science]]'' (1996) that subsequent scientific research contradicted Greer's claim that there are no differences between the brains of men and women.<ref>{{cite book |author=LeVay, Simon |title=Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality |publisher=The MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1996 |pages=139–143 |isbn=0-262-12199-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/queerscienceusea00leva/page/139 }}</ref> The critic [[Camille Paglia]] called ''The Female Eunuch'' a "marvelous book", and described Greer's international tour to promote it as "the zenith of twentieth-century feminism".<ref>{{cite book |author=Paglia, Camille |title=Free Women, Free Men: Sex, Gender, Feminism |publisher=Pantheon Books |location=New York |year=2017 |page=131 |isbn=978-0-375-42477-9}}</ref> |
| In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], as part of a delegation by the [[Institute of Electrical Engineers]]. He presented a paper on standardization, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent terms for the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TAi_QBsTz5UC|title=Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources|author1=Chris K. Dyer |author2=Patrick T. Moseley |author3=Zempachi Ogumi |author4=David A. J. Rand |author5=Bruno Scrosati Newnes | year=2010|page=540|isbn=9780444527455 }}</ref> The body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardization, [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] was elected as the body's first President.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.iec.ch/about/history/documents/pdf/IEC_Founding_Meeting_Report_1906.pdf | title=1906 Preliminary Meeting Report, pp. 46–48 | work=The minutes from our first meeting | author=IEC | access-date=21 October 2012 | archive-date=2 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502223234/https://www.iec.ch/about/history/documents/pdf/IEC_Founding_Meeting_Report_1906.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
|
| |
|
| [[File:Memory plaque of founding ISA in Prague cropped.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial plaque of founding ISA in Prague]]
| | ==Notes== |
| The [[ISO|International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations]] (ISA) was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during [[World War II]].
| | {{Reflist}} |
|
| |
|
| After the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal to form a new global standards body. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in [[London]] and agreed to join forces to create the new [[International Organization for Standardization]]; the new organization officially began operations in February 1947.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/about%20ISO/docs/en/Friendship_among_equals.pdf|title=Friendship among equals - Recollections from ISO's first fifty years|publisher=International Organization for Standardization|year=1997|isbn=92-67-10260-5|pages=15–18|access-date=26 December 2013}}</ref>
| | ==External links== |
| | {{Wikiquote|Germaine Greer#The Female Eunuch|The Female Eunuch}} |
| | * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/133_wbc_archive_new/page3.shtml Germaine Greer discusses ''The Female Eunuch''] on the BBC ''[[World Book Club]]'' |
| | * ''[https://archive.org/download/TheFemaleEunuchGermaineGreer/The%20Female%20Eunuch%20-%20Germaine%20Greer.mobi The Female Eunuch]'' (.mobi) at [[Archive.org]] |
| | {{Radical feminism}} |
|
| |
|
| ==Overview==
| | {{DEFAULTSORT:Female Eunuch, The}} |
| Standards organizations can be classified by their role, position, and the extent of their influence on the local, national, regional, and global standardization arena.
| | [[Category:1970 non-fiction books]] |
| | | [[Category:Books by Germaine Greer]] |
| By geographic designation, there are international, regional, and national standards bodies (the latter often referred to as NSBs). By technology or industry designation, there are standards developing organizations (SDOs) and also standards setting organizations (SSOs) also known as consortia. Standards organizations may be governmental, quasi-governmental or non-governmental entities. Quasi- and non-governmental standards organizations are often non-profit organizations.
| | [[Category:English-language books]] |
| | | [[Category:English non-fiction books]] |
| === International standards organizations ===
| | [[Category:Gender studies books]] |
| [[Image:British Standards Institution building as it appeared in 1997.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|The British Standards Institution building as it appeared in 1997]]
| | [[Category:Non-fiction books about consumerism]] |
| Broadly, an international standards organization develops [[international standards]]. (This does not necessarily restrict the use of other published standards internationally.)
| | [[Category:Radical feminist books]] |
| | | [[Category:Second-wave feminism]] |
| There are many international standards organizations. The three largest and most well-established such organizations are the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), and the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU), which have each existed for more than 50 years (founded in 1947, 1906, and 1865, respectively) and are all based in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. They have established tens of thousands of standards covering almost every conceivable topic. Many of these are then adopted worldwide replacing various incompatible "homegrown" standards. Many of these standards are naturally evolved from those designed in-house within an industry, or by a particular country, while others have been built from scratch by groups of experts who sit on various technical committees (TCs). These three organizations together comprise the [[World Standards Cooperation]] (WSC) alliance.
| | [[Category:MacGibbon & Kee books]] |
| | |
| ISO is composed of the national standards bodies (NSBs), one per member economy. The IEC is similarly composed of national committees, one per member economy. In some cases, the national committee to the IEC of an economy may also be the ISO member from that country or economy. ISO and IEC are private international organizations that are not established by any international treaty. Their members may be non-governmental organizations or governmental agencies, as selected by ISO and IEC (which are privately established organizations).
| |
| | |
| The ITU is a treaty-based organization established as a permanent agency of the [[United Nations]], in which governments are the primary members,{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} although other organizations (such as non-governmental organizations and individual companies) can also hold a form of direct membership status in the ITU as well. Another example of a treaty-based international standards organization with government membership is the [[Codex Alimentarius|Codex Alimentarius Commission]].
| |
| | |
| [[Image:Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas 01.jpg|thumb|right|Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas building, as seen in 2014]]
| |
| | |
| In addition to these, a large variety of independent international standards organizations such as the [[ASME]], the [[ASTM International]], the [https://cie.co.at International Commission on Illumination (CIE)], the [[IEEE]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF), [[SAE International]], [[TAPPI]], the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C), and the [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU) develop and publish standards for a variety of international uses. In many such cases, these international standards organizations are not based on the principle of one member per country. Rather, membership in such organizations is open to those interested in joining and willing to agree to the organization's by-laws – having either organizational/corporate or individual technical experts as members.
| |
| | |
| The Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) was formed in 1949 to prepare avionics system engineering standards with other aviation organizations RTCA, EUROCAE, and ICAO. The standards are widely known as the ARINC Standards.
| |
| | |
| === Regional standards organizations ===
| |
| Regional standards bodies also exist, such as the [[European Committee for Standardization]] (CEN), the [[European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization]] (CENELEC), the [[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]] (ETSI), and the [[Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements]] (IRMM) in Europe, the [[Pacific Area Standards Congress]] (PASC), the [[Pan American Standards Commission]] (COPANT), the [[African Organisation for Standardisation]] (ARSO), the [[Arabic industrial development and mining organization]] (AIDMO), and others.
| |
| | |
| In the European Union, only standards created by CEN, CENELEC, and ETSI are recognized as ''European standards'' (according to Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012<ref>{{Citation|title=Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on European standardization, amending Council Directives 89/686/EEC and 93/15/EEC and Directives 94/9/EC, 94/25/EC, 95/16/EC, 97/23/EC, 98/34/EC, 2004/22/EC, 2007/23/EC, 2009/23/EC and 2009/105/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Decision 87/95/EEC and Decision No 1673/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Text with EEA relevance|date=2012-11-14|url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2012/1025/oj/eng|issue=32012R1025|language=en|access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref>), and member states are required to notify the European Commission and each other about all the draft technical regulations concerning ICT products and services before they are adopted in national law.<ref name="euDir98_34">European Union: [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31998L0034:en:NOT Directive 98/34/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 June 1998 laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the field of technical standards and regulations] ''Official Journal L'' é04, 21.7.1998, p. 37–48. (This page also provides references to amendments.) See also European Commission: Enterprise Directorate-General: [http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/standards_policy/vademecum/doc/98_34_ec_consolidated_version.pdf Vademecum on European Standardisation]. (This document contains a consolidated version of Directive 98/34/EC, dated 15 November 2003.) Accessed 2009-05-05.</ref> These rules were laid down in Directive 98/34/EC with the goal of providing transparency and control with regard to technical regulations.<ref name="euDir98_34"/>
| |
| | |
| Sub-regional standards organizations also exist such as the [[MERCOSUR]] Standardization Association (AMN), the [[CARICOM Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality]] (CROSQ), and the ASEAN Consultative Committee for Standards and Quality (ACCSQ), EAC East Africa Standards Committee [[www.eac-quality.net]], and the [[GCC Standardization Organization|GCC Standardization Organization (GSO)]] for [[Arab States of the Persian Gulf]].
| |
| | |
| === National standards bodies ===
| |
| In general, each country or economy has a single recognized national standards body (NSB). A national standards body is likely the sole member from that economy in ISO; ISO currently has 161 members. National standards bodies usually do not prepare the technical content of standards, which instead is developed by national technical societies.
| |
| | |
| {|class='wikitable sortable'
| |
| |+ Example national standards bodies<ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/about/iso_members.htm ISO Members, retrieved 2012 Feb 21]</ref>
| |
| !Organization !!Initials !!Country
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[American National Standards Institute]]||ANSI||United States
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación]], Spanish Association for Standardization and Certification||AENOR||Spain
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[AFNOR|Association Française de Normalisation]], French Association for Standardization||AFNOR||France
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Badan Standardisasi Nasional]]||BSN||Indonesia
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution]]||BSTI||Bangladesh
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Brazilian National Standards Organization]]||ABNT||Brazil
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[British Standards Institution]]||BSI||United Kingdom
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://www.bds-bg.org/en/ Bulgarian Institute for Standardization]||BDS||[[Bulgaria]]
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://www.nbn.be/nl/over-nbn/nbn Bureau voor Normalisatie/Bureau de Normalisation]||NBN||Belgium
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Bureau of Indian Standards]]||BIS||India
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://www.bsj.org.jm Bureau of Standards Jamaica]||BSJ||Jamaica
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[:es:Dirección General de Normas (México)|Dirección General de Normas]]||DGN||Mexico
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Deutsches Institut für Normung]]||DIN||Germany
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://www.evs.ee/en Eesti Standardimis- ja Akrediteerimiskeskus], Estonian Centre for Standardisation||EVS||Estonia
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione]]||UNI||Italy
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[GOST|Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification]]||GOST||Russia (Soviet Union)
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Finnish Standards Association]]||SFS||Finland
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://ilnas.gouvernement.lu Institut Luxembourgeois de la normalisation, de l’Accréditation, de la Sécurité et qualité des produits et services],<br>Luxembourg Institute for Standardization, Accreditation, Security, and Quality of Products and Services||ILNAS||Luxembourg
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Instituto Argentino de Normalización y Certificación]]||IRAM||Argentina
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[ICONTEC|Instituto Colombiano de Normas Técnicas y Certificación]], Colombian Institute of Technical Standards and Certification||ICONTEC||Colombia
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Japanese Industrial Standards Committee]]||JISC||Japan
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://www.nen.nl Koninklijk Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut]||NEN||Netherlands
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Korean Agency for Technology and Standards]]||KATS||South Korea
| |
| |-
| |
| |[http://www.mszt.hu/homepage Magyar Szabványügyi Testület], Hungarian Standards Institution||MSZT||Hungary
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://www.asro.ro Organismul Național de Standardizare], Romanian Standards Association||ASRO||Romania
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[South African Bureau of Standards]]||SABS||South Africa
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Standardization Administration of China]]||SAC||China
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Standards Council of Canada]]||SCC||Canada
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Standards New Zealand]]||SNZ|| New Zealand
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Standards Norway]]||SN||Norway
| |
| |-
| |
| |[https://son.gov.ng Standards Organisation of Nigeria]||SON||Nigeria
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Swedish Standards Institute]]||SIS||Sweden
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Swiss Association for Standardization]]||SNV||Switzerland
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Turkish Standards Institution]]||TSE|| Turkey
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Standards Australia]]||SAI||Australia
| |
| |-
| |
| |[http://www.jsm.gov.my/ Jabatan Standard Malaysia]||DSM||Malaysia
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[:pt:Instituto Português da Qualidade|Instituto Português da Qualidade]], Portuguese Institute for Quality||IPQ||Portugal
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| NSBs may be either public or private sector organizations, or combinations of the two. For example, the Standards Council of Canada is a Canadian [[Crown Corporation]], Dirección General de Normas is a governmental agency within the Mexican Ministry of Economy, and ANSI is a [[501(c)(3)]] non-profit U.S. organization with members from both the private and public sectors. The [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), the U.S. government's standards agency, cooperates with ANSI under a [[memorandum of understanding]] to collaborate on the United States Standards Strategy. The determinates of whether an NSB for a particular economy is a public or private sector body may include the historical and traditional roles that the private sector fills in public affairs in that economy or the development stage of that economy.
| |
| | |
| === Standards developing organizations (SDOs) ===
| |
| A ''national standards body'' (NSB) generally refers to one standardization organization that is that country’s member of the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]. A ''standards developing organization'' (SDO) is one of the thousands of industry- or sector-based standards organizations that develop and publish industry specific standards. Some economies feature only an NSB with no other SDOs. Large economies like the United States and Japan have several hundred SDOs, many of which are coordinated by the central NSBs of each country (ANSI and JISC in this case). In some cases, international industry-based SDOs such as the [https://cie.co.at CIE], the [[IEEE]] and the [[Audio Engineering Society]] (AES) may have direct liaisons with international standards organizations, having input to international standards without going through a national standards body. SDOs are differentiated from standards setting organizations (SSOs) in that SDOs may be accredited to develop standards using open and transparent processes.
| |
| | |
| === Scope of work ===
| |
| Developers of technical standards are generally concerned with [[interface standard]]s, which detail how products interconnect with each other, and [[safety standards]], which established characteristics ensure that a product or process is safe for humans, animals, and the environment. The subject of their work can be narrow or broad. Another area of interest is in defining how the behavior and performance of products is measured and described in data sheets.
| |
| | |
| Overlapping or competing standards bodies tend to cooperate purposefully, by seeking to define boundaries between the scope of their work, and by operating in a hierarchical fashion in terms of national, regional and international scope; international organizations tend to have as members national organizations; and standards emerging at national level (such as [[ISO 9000|BS 5750]]) can be adopted at regional levels (BS 5750 was adopted as EN 29000) and at international levels (BS 5750 was adopted as ISO 9000).
| |
| | |
| Unless adopted by a government, standards carry no force in law. However, most jurisdictions have [[False advertising|truth in advertising]] laws, and ambiguities can be reduced if a company offers a product that is "compliant" with a standard.
| |
| | |
| === Standards development process ===
| |
| When an organization develops standards that may be used openly, it is common to have formal rules published regarding the process. This may include:
| |
| * Who is allowed to vote and provide input on new or revised standards
| |
| * What is the formal step-by-step process
| |
| * How are bias and commercial interests handled
| |
| * How negative votes or ballots are handled
| |
| * What type of consensus is required
| |
| | |
| Though it can be a tedious and lengthy process, formal standard setting is essential to developing new technologies. For example, since 1865, the telecommunications industry has depended on the [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] to establish the telecommunications standards that have been adopted worldwide. The ITU has created numerous telecommunications standards including telegraph specifications, allocation of telephone numbers, interference protection, and protocols for a variety of communications technologies. The standards that are created through standards organizations lead to improved product quality, ensured [[interoperability]] of competitors’ products, and they provide a technological baseline for future research and product development. Formal standard setting through standards organizations has numerous benefits for consumers including increased innovation, multiple market participants, reduced production costs, and the efficiency effects of product interchangeability. To support the standard development process, [[ISO]] published Good Standardization Practices (GSP)<ref>{{cite book |title=Good Standardization Practices (GSP) |date=2019 |publisher=ISO |location=Geneva Switzerland |isbn=978-92-67-10986-2 |edition=1 |url=https://www.iso.org/publication/PUB100440.html}}</ref> and the [[WTO]] Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee published the "Six Principles" guiding members in the development of international standards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tbt_e/principles_standards_tbt_e.htm |website=wto.org |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| === Standards distribution and copyright ===
| |
| Some standards – such as the [[Schools Interoperability Framework|SIF Specification]] in K12 education – are managed by a non-profit organizations composed of public entities and private entities working in cooperation that then publish the standards under an open license at no charge and requiring no registration.
| |
| | |
| A technical library at a university may have copies of technical standards on hand. Major libraries in large cities may also have access to many technical standards.
| |
| | |
| Some users of standards mistakenly assume that all standards are in the [[public domain]]. This assumption is correct only for standards produced by the [[central government]]s whose publications are not amenable to [[copyright]] or to organizations that issue their standard under an open license. Any standards produced by non-governmental entities remain the [[intellectual property]] of their developers (unless specifically designed otherwise) and are protected, just like any other [[publication]]s, by [[copyright]] laws and international [[treaties]]. However, the intellectual property extends only to the standard itself and not to its use. For instance if a company sells a device that is compliant with a given standard, it is not liable for further payment to the standards organization except in the special case when the organization holds patent rights or some other ownership of the intellectual property described in the standard.
| |
| | |
| It is, however, liable for any patent infringement by its implementation, just as with any other implementation of technology. The standards organizations give no guarantees that patents relevant to a given standard have been identified. ISO standards draw attention to this in the foreword with a statement like the following: "Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent rights. ISO and IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights".<ref>Quoted from ISO/IEC 24751-1:2008: ''Information technology – Individualized adaptability and accessibility in e-learning, education and training – Part 1: Framework and reference model'', p. v.</ref> If the standards organization is aware that parts of a given standard fall under patent protection, it will often require the patent holder to agree to [[Reasonable and non-discriminatory licensing]] before including it in the standard. Such an agreement is regarded as a legally binding contract,<ref>{{cite news |author1=J. Gregory Sidak |title=The Meaning of FRAND, Part I: Royalties |url=https://www.criterioneconomics.com/meaning-of-frand-royalties-for-standard-essential-patents.html |work=Criterion Economics, Inc. |date=2013 |language=en}}</ref> as in the 2012 case ''[[Microsoft v. Motorola]]''.
| |
| | |
| == Trends ==
| |
| The ever-quickening pace of technology evolution is now more than ever affecting the way new standards are proposed, developed and implemented.
| |
| | |
| Since traditional, widely respected standards organizations tend to operate at a slower pace than technology evolves, many standards they develop are becoming less relevant because of the inability of their developers to keep abreast with the technological innovation. As a result, a new class of standards setters appeared on the [[standardization]] arena: the '''industry consortia''' or standards setting organizations (SSOs), which are also referred to as [[technical standard|private standards]].<ref>{{cite book |title=International standards and private standards |date=2010 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |isbn=978-92-67-10518-5 |url=https://docplayer.net/23885374-International-standards-and-private-standards.html }}</ref> Despite having limited financial resources, some of them enjoy truly international acceptance. One example is the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C), whose standards for [[HTML]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], and [[XML]] are used universally. There are also community-driven associations such as the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF), a worldwide network of volunteers who collaborate to set standards for lower-level software solutions.
| |
| | |
| Some industry-driven standards development efforts don't even have a formal organizational structure. They are projects funded by large corporations. Among them are the [[OpenOffice.org]], an [[Apache Software Foundation]]-sponsored international community of volunteers working on an [[open standard|open-standard]] software that aims to compete with [[Microsoft Office]], and two commercial groups competing fiercely with each other to develop an industry-wide standard for [[DVD|high-density optical storage]]. Another example is the [[Global Food Safety Initiative]] where members of the [[Consumer Goods Forum]] define benchmarking requirements for [[Harmonization (standards)|harmonization]] and recognize scheme owners using [[technical standard|private standards]] for [[food safety]].
| |
| | |
| == See also ==
| |
| <!-- * [[International standard]] merged with standard -->
| |
| * [[Coordination game]] <!-- standard as solution -->
| |
| * [[Harmonization (standards)]]
| |
| * [[International Organization for Standardization]]
| |
| * [[List of computer standards]]
| |
| * [[List of international common standards]]
| |
| * [[List of technical standard organizations]]
| |
| * [[Quality control]]
| |
| * [[Reasonable and non-discriminatory licensing]]
| |
| * [[Software standard]]
| |
| * [[Specification (technical standard)]]
| |
| * [[Standardization]]
| |
| * [[Technical standard]]
| |
| * [[Transport standards organisations]]
| |
| | |
| == References ==
| |
| <references />
| |
| | |
| == External links ==
| |
| {{Commons category|Standards organizations}}
| |
| * [http://www.standardsportal.org/usa_en/resources/sdo.aspx ANSI: directory of standards developing organizations]
| |
| * [http://www.cen.eu/cen/sectors/sectors/isss/consortia/pages/default.aspx CEN: standards consortia for information and communication technologies]
| |
| * [http://gsi.nist.gov/global/index.cfm/L1-1 NIST: global standards information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829040523/http://gsi.nist.gov/global/index.cfm/L1-1 |date=29 August 2012 }}
| |
| | |
| {{Product testing}}
| |
| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Standards Organization}}
| |
| [[Category:Standards organizations| ]] | |
| [[Category:Product testing]] | |
Template:Infobox book
The Female Eunuch is a 1970 book by Germaine Greer that became an international bestseller and an important text in the feminist movement. Greer's thesis is that the "traditional" suburban, consumerist, nuclear family represses women sexually, and that this devitalises them, rendering them eunuchs. The book was published in London in October 1970. It received a mixed reception, but by March 1971, it had nearly sold out its second printing. It has been translated into eleven languages.[1]
A sequel to The Female Eunuch, entitled The Whole Woman, was published in 1999.[2]
Summary
The book is a feminist analysis, written with a mixture of polemic and scholarly research. It was a key text of the feminist movement in the 1970s, broadly discussed and criticised by other feminists and the wider community, particularly through the author's high profile in the broadcast media. In sections titled "Body", "Soul", "Energy", "Love" and "Hate" Greer examines historical definitions of women's perception of self and uses a premise of imposed limitations to critique modern consumer societies, female "normality", and masculine shaping of stereotypes quoting, "The World has lost its soul, and I my sex."[3] In contrast to earlier feminist works, Greer uses humour, boldness, and coarse language to present a direct and candid description of female sexuality, much of this subject having remained undiscussed in English-speaking societies. Greer's irreverence towards Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis was inspired by Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex.[4] The work bridged academia and the contemporary arts in presenting the targets of the final section of the book, Revolution; it is in accord, and often associated with, a creative and revolutionary movement of the period.
Greer argues that men hate women, though the latter do not realise this and are taught to hate themselves.[5]
In her final title labelled Revolution, Greer argues that change had to come about via revolution, not evolution. Women should get to know and come to accept their own bodies, taste their own menstrual blood, and give up celibacy and monogamy. Yet they should not burn their bras. "Bras are a ludicrous invention", she wrote, "but if you make bralessness a rule, you're just subjecting yourself to yet another repression."[6] Greer complains of the "genteel, middle-class ladies" who sit on women's rights committees and spend their time signing petitions to achieve equality. Greer expresses that to gain equality a woman must not be genteel but she should instead seek revolution.
In a foreword added to the 21st anniversary edition, Greer references the loss of women's freedom with the "sudden death of communism" (1989) as catapult for women the world over for a sudden transition into consumer Western society wherein there is little to no protection for mothers and the disabled; here, there is no freedom to speak:
The freedom I pleaded for twenty years ago was freedom to be a person, with dignity, integrity, nobility, passion, pride that constitute personhood. Freedom to run, shout, talk loudly and sit with your knees apart. Freedom to know and love the earth and all that swims, lies, and crawls upon it ... most of the women in the world are still afraid, still hungry, still mute and loaded by religion with all kinds of fetters, masked, muzzled, mutilated and beaten.[7]
Reception
Camille Paglia is an ardent fan of
The Female Eunuch, highlighting Greer's "brilliant and aggressive voice".
[8] In a 1971 interview, Greer said of her book that "The title is an indication of the problem. Women have somehow been separated from their libido, from their faculty of desire, from their sexuality. They've become suspicious about it. Like beasts, for example, who are castrated in farming in order to serve their master's ulterior motives—to be fattened or made docile—women have been cut off from their capacity for action. It's a process that sacrifices vigor for delicacy and succulence, and one that's got to be changed."[9] In January 1972 The Age's reviewer Thelma Forshaw described The Female Eunuch as "the orchestrated over-the-back-fence grizzle ... based on the curious fancy ... we were all men, and then some fiend castrated half of us and gave us a ghastly internal bookie's bag called a womb".[10] The newspaper declared that the review "has stirred up a considerable controversy".[11] According to the journalist Keith Dunstan, "[t]he reviews of [the book] were extremely mixed. The most famous was by [Forshaw] of The Age".[10] Dunstan contrasted this with a positive review by Sylvia Lawson of The Australian, "[it has] been greeted in Australia with some fantastically myopic, complacent and resentful printed comment ... [the book] is neither dogmatic nor complacent, neither strident nor paranoic ... [it is] ranging, exploratory and questioning".[10]
Laura Miller of Salon described the book as a "fitful, passionate, scattered text, not cohesive enough to qualify as a manifesto. It's all over the place, impulsive, and fatally naive—which is to say it is the quintessential product of its time."[12] The neuroscientist Simon LeVay wrote in Queer Science (1996) that subsequent scientific research contradicted Greer's claim that there are no differences between the brains of men and women.[13] The critic Camille Paglia called The Female Eunuch a "marvelous book", and described Greer's international tour to promote it as "the zenith of twentieth-century feminism".[14]
Notes
- ↑ Wilde, W. H. (1994). The Oxford companion to Australian Literature, 2nd. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-553381-X. “... the book became almost a sacred text for the international women's liberation movement of the 1970s, notwithstanding sporadic criticism of aspects of its ideology from some feminists.”
- ↑ Greer. The Whole Woman Doubleday, Template:ISBN
- ↑ Greer, Germaine. The Female Eunuch. UK: Harper Perennial, 2006.
- ↑ Webster, Richard (2005). Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press. ISBN 0-9515922-5-4.
- ↑ Wallace 1997
- ↑ Foreword to the Paladin 21st Anniversary Edition, 2006.
- ↑ Greer, Germaine (1993). The Female Eunuch. London: Flamingo. ISBN 0-586-08055-4.
- ↑ Germaine Greer: professional contrarian, nature lover, and feminist. Australian Financial Review (22 June 2018). Retrieved on 16 January 2023.
- ↑ Weinraub, Judith. Germaine Greer -- Opinions That May Shock the Faithful, The New York Times, 22 March 1971.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Dunstan, Keith (2004). “Germaine Greer”, Matthew Ricketson: The Best Australian Profiles. Melbourne, Vic: Black Inc. ISBN 9781863952934.
- ↑ Letters to the Editor, The Age, Fairfax Media, 20 January 1972, p. 8.
- ↑ Laura Miller (1999-06-22). Germaine Greer. Brilliant Careers 1 of 2. Salon. “They didn't become megastars, but they became a librarian or something. I've heard women say again and again when the subject of Germaine comes up: 'Well, her book changed my life for the better.' And they'll be modest women living pretty ordinary lives, but better lives." Women entirely unlike Germaine Greer, the feminist who improved the world in spite of herself.”
- ↑ LeVay, Simon (1996). Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 139–143. ISBN 0-262-12199-9.
- ↑ Paglia, Camille (2017). Free Women, Free Men: Sex, Gender, Feminism. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42477-9.
External links
Template:Wikiquote
Template:Radical feminism
_of_Camille_Paglia_no_Fronteiras_do_Pensamento_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_2015.jpg)