Borderline personality disorder: Difference between revisions

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'''Borderline personality disorder''' (BPD) is identified as a [[Personality disorder|personality disorder]] characterized by [[emotional dysregulation]], extreme "black and white" thinking, and chaotic relationships.<ref name="pmid15288745">{{cite journal| author=Lieb K, Zanarini MC, Schmahl C, Linehan MM, Bohus M| title=Borderline personality disorder. | journal=Lancet | year= 2004 Jul 31-Aug 6 | volume= 364 | issue= 9432 | pages= 453-61 | pmid=15288745
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15288745 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6 }} </ref>  The general profile of the disorder also includes a pervasive instability of [[Mood (psychology)|mood]], poor [[self-image]], issues of [[Identity (social science)|identity]], and disturbance in the [[sense of self]].  In extreme cases, periods of [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]] can also be demonstrated. <ref name="DSM-IV-TR">(2004). ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR'' (Text Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. ISBN [[Special:Booksources/0890420246|0890420246]].  [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/borderlinepd.htm DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR Borderline Personality Disorder criteria]. ''BehaveNet.com''.</ref>


'''Borderline personality disorder''' (BPD) is defined as a mental condition characterized by [[emotional dysregulation]], extreme "black and white" thinking, or "splitting", and chaotic relationships. The general profile of the disorder often includes a pervasive instability in [[Mood (psychology)|mood]], [[interpersonal relationship|interpersonal relationships]], [[self-image]], [[Identity (social science)|identity]], and [[human behavior|behavior]], as well as a disturbance in the individual's [[Psychological identity|sense of self]]. In extreme cases, this disturbance in the sense of self can lead to periods of [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR">(2004). ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR'' (Text Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. ISBN [[Special:Booksources/0890420246|0890420246]]. [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/borderlinepd.htm DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR Borderline Personality Disorder criteria]. ''BehaveNet.com''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
Borderline personality disorder falls within the [[Personality disorder#Cluster Descriptions|B cluster]] of [[Personality disorder|personality disorders]], along with [[Antisocial personality disorder]], [[Histrionic personality disorder]], and [[Narcissistic personality disorder]]. <ref name=DSM-IV-TR/>


The disturbances suffered by those with Borderline personality disorder have a wide-ranging and pervasive negative impact on many or all of the psychosocial facets of life, including ability to hold down a job and relationships in work, home, and social settings. [[Comorbidity]] is common insofar as Borderline personality disorder frequently occurring with substance use disorders and [[mood disorders]]. Attempted [[suicide]], [[para-suicidal]] behavior, and completed suicide are also characteristic behaviors.  
Disturbances experienced by those diagnosed as exhibiting the [[symptomology|symptom]] profile for Borderline personality disorder have a wide-ranging and pervasive negative impact on many facets of the person's life, including employment, relationships at work, family life, and other social relationships. [[Co-occurrence]] of [[substance abuse]] and [[mood disorders]], as well as para-suicidal and suicidal behavior, is common.


== Diagnosis ==
==Epidemiology==
Figures on the [[prevalence]] of BPD in the general population vary, ranging from approximately 1% to 2%. <ref name=PToverview/> <ref>Swartz, M.; D. Blazer, L. George, et al. (1990). "Estimating the prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the community". ''Journal of Personality Disorders '4''' (3): 257-72.</ref> The diagnosis appears to be more common in women than in men, by a ration of as much as 3:1 according to the DSM-IV-TR. <ref>"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders".  (2000). Washington, D.C.: ''American Psychiatric Association '4''' Text Revision.</ref> <ref>Skodol, A.E.; D.S. Bender (2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=14686459&dopt=Abstract Why are women diagnosed borderline more than men?]" ''Psychiatr Q '74''' (4): 349-60..</ref>
 
Sufferers of BPD are also disproportionately represented in prison populations, with 23 percent of incarcerated men and 20 percent of incarcerated women are diagnosed with BPD. <ref name=prison>Singleton, N.; H. Meltzer, R. Gatward with The Department of Health ([[1998-10-13]]). ''[http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/DH_4007132 Psychiatric morbidity among prisoners in England and Wales]''. London: The Stationery Office. [[Special:Booksources/0116210451|ISBN 0116210451]].</ref>
 
== Diagnostic criteria ==
{{DSMCR}}
Diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the patient, as well as markers for the disorder observed by a [[psychiatrist]], [[clinical psychologist|psychologist]], or other qualified diagnostician through clinical assessment. This profile may be supported and/or corroborated by long term patterns of behavior as reported by family members, friends or co-workers.  The list of criteria that must be met for diagnosis is outlined in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV-TR]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR"/>
Diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the patient, as well as markers for the disorder observed by a [[psychiatrist]], [[clinical psychologist|psychologist]], or other qualified diagnostician through clinical assessment. This profile may be supported and/or corroborated by long term patterns of behavior as reported by family members, friends or co-workers.  The list of criteria that must be met for diagnosis is outlined in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV-TR]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR"/>


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The World Health Organization's [[ICD-10]] has a comparable diagnosis called [[Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder#F60.31 Borderline type|Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder - Borderline type (F60.31)]]. This requires, in addition to the general criteria for personality disorder: disturbances in and uncertainty about self-image, aims, and internal preferences (including sexual); liability to become involved in intense and unstable relationships, often leading to emotional crisis; excessive efforts to avoid abandonment; recurrent threats or acts of self-harm; and chronic feelings of emptiness.
The World Health Organization's [[ICD-10]] has a comparable diagnosis called [[Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder#F60.31 Borderline type|Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder - Borderline type (F60.31)]]. This requires, in addition to the general criteria for personality disorder: disturbances in and uncertainty about self-image, aims, and internal preferences (including sexual); liability to become involved in intense and unstable relationships, often leading to emotional crisis; excessive efforts to avoid abandonment; recurrent threats or acts of self-harm; and chronic feelings of emptiness.


The [[Chinese Society of Psychiatry]]'s [[CCMD]] has a comparable diagnosis of Impulsive Personality Disorder. A patient diagnosed as having IPD must display "affective outbursts" and "marked impulsive behavior", plus at least three out of eight other symptoms. The construct has been described as a hybrid of the impulsive and borderline subtypes of the ICD's Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder, and also incorporates six of the nine DSM BPD criteria.<ref>Zhong, J.; F. Leung ([[2007-01-05]]). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17254494 Should borderline personality disorder be included in the fourth edition of the Chinese classification of mental disorders?]" ''Chin Med J'' (English) '''120''' (1): 77-82. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
The [[Chinese Society of Psychiatry]]'s [[CCMD]] has a comparable diagnosis of Impulsive Personality Disorder. A patient diagnosed as having IPD must display "affective outbursts" and "marked impulsive behavior", plus at least three out of eight other symptoms. The construct has been described as a hybrid of the impulsive and borderline subtypes of the ICD's Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder, and also incorporates six of the nine DSM BPD criteria.<ref>Zhong, J.; F. Leung ([[2007-01-05]]). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17254494 Should borderline personality disorder be included in the fourth edition of the Chinese classification of mental disorders?]" ''Chin Med J'' (English) '''120''' (1): 77-82.</ref>
 
===Aspects of BPD===
It has been noted that there is probably no other mental disorder about which so many articles and books have been written, yet about which so little is known based on empirical research.<ref name="cogemo">Arntz, A. (September 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16018875 Introduction to special issue: cognition and emotion in borderline personality disorder.]" ''J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry'' '''36''' (3): 167-72. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
 
Studies suggest that individuals with BPD tend to experience frequent, strong and long-lasting states of [[aversives|aversive]] tension, often triggered by perceived rejection, being alone, or perceived failure.<ref>Stiglmayr, C.E.; T. Grathwol, M.M. Leneham, et al. (May 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=1581973 Aversive tension in patients with borderline personality disorder: a computer-based controlled field study.]" ''Acta Psychiatr Scand'' '''111''' (5): 372-9. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Individuals with BPD may show [[lability]] (changeability) between anger and anxiety or between depression and anxiety<ref>Koenigsberg H.W.; P.D. Harvey, V. Mitropoulou, et al. (May 2002). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=11986132 Characterizing affective instability in borderline personality disorder]". ''Am J Psychiatry'' '''159''' (5): 784-8. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> and temperamental sensitivity to emotive stimuli.<ref>Meyer, B.; M. Ajchenbrenner, D.P. Bowles (December 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16553560 Sensory sensitivity, attachment experiences, and rejection responses among adults with borderline and avoidant features]". ''J Personal Disord'' '''19''' (6): 641-58. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
 
The negative emotional states particularly associated with BPD have been grouped into four categories: extreme feelings in general; feelings of destructiveness or self-destructiveness; feelings of fragmentation or lack of identity; and feelings of victimization.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, C.J. DeLuca, et al. (1998). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10370445 The pain of being borderline: dysphoric states specific to borderline personality disorder]". ''Harvard Review of Psychiatry'' '''6''' (4): 201-7. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
 
Individuals with BPD can be very sensitive to the way others treat them, reacting strongly to perceived criticism or hurtfulness. Their feelings about others often shift from positive to negative, generally after a disappointment or perceived threat of losing someone. Self-image can also change rapidly from extremely positive to extremely negative. Impulsive behaviors are common, including alcohol or drug abuse, unsafe sex, gambling, and recklessness in general.<ref>American Psychiatric Association (2001). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=11726742&dopt=Abstract Psychiatric Services]". ''Psychiatr Serv'' (52): 1569-70. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Attachment studies suggest individuals with BPD, while being high in intimacy- or novelty-seeking, can be hyper-alert<ref name="cogemo"/> to signs of rejection or not being valued and tend towards insecure, ambivalent, preoccupied or fearful attitudes towards relationships.<ref>Levy, K.N.; K.B. Meehan, M. Weber, et al. (March &ndash; April 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15802944 Attachment and borderline personality disorder: implications for psychotherapy]". ''Psychopathology'' '''38''' (2): 64-74. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> They tend to view the world generally as dangerous and malevolent, and themselves as powerless, vulnerable, unacceptable and unsure in self-identity.<ref name="cogemo"/>
 
Individuals with BPD are often described, including by some mental health professionals (and in the DSM-IV),<ref name="criteria"/> as deliberately manipulative or difficult, but analyses and findings generally trace behaviors to inner pain and turmoil, powerlessness and defensive reactions, or limited coping and communication skills.<ref name="manipulative">Potter, N. (April 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16643118 What is manipulative behavior, anyway?]" ''J Personal Disord.'' '''20''' (2): 139-56; discussion 181-5. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>McKay, D.; C.A. Gavigan, S. Kulchycky (2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=15224626 Social skills and sex-role functioning in borderline personality disorder: relationship to self-mutilating behavior]". ''Cogn Behav Ther'' '''33''' (1): 27-35. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>Linehan, M. (1993). ''Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder.'' New York: Guilford. [[Special:Booksources/0898621836|ISBN 0898621836]].</ref> There has been limited research on family members' understanding of borderline personality disorder and the extent of burden or negative emotion experienced or expressed by family members.<ref>Hoffman, P.D.; E. Buteau, J.M. Hooley, et al. (2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14979218 Family members' knowledge about borderline personality disorder: correspondence with their levels of depression, burden, distress, and expressed emotion]". ''Family Process'' '''42''' (4): 469-78. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Parents of individuals with BPD have been reported to show co-existing extremes of over-involvement and under-involvement.<ref name="parents">Allen, D.M.; R.G. Farmer (January &ndash; February 1996). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=8770526 Family relationships of adults with borderline personality disorder]". ''Compr Psychiatry'' '''37''' (1): 43-51. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> BPD has been linked to somewhat increased levels of chronic stress and conflict in romantic relationships, decreased satisfaction of romantic partners, abuse, and unwanted pregnancy; these links may largely be general to personality disorder and subsyndromal problems,<ref>Daley, S.E.; D. Burge, C. Hammen (August 2000). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=11016115 Borderline personality disorder symptoms as predictors of 4-year romantic relationship dysfunction in young women: addressing issues of specificity]". ''J Abnorm Psychol'' '''109''' (3): 451-60. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> but such issues are commonly raised in support groups and published literature for partners of individuals with BPD.
 
Suicidal or self-harming behavior is one of the core diagnostic criteria in DSM IV-TR, and management of and recovery from this can be complex and challenging.<ref>Hawton, K.; E. Townsend, E. Arensman, et al. (1999). "[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001764.html Cochrane Collaboration Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments for deliberate self harm]". ''Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' (4). Art. No.: CD001764. [[DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001764]]. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> The [[suicide]] rate is approximately eight to ten percent.<ref name=bpdtoday>[http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/facts.htm Borderline Personality Disorder Facts]. ''BPD Today''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> The most recognized form of self-injury is automutilation (cutting the self), usually of the arms, but often other areas such as the legs, chest, belly, and face. Self-injury attempts are highly common among patients and may or may not be carried out with suicidal intent.<ref>Soloff, P.H.; J.A. Lis, T. Kelly, et al. (1994). "Self-mutilation and suicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder". ''Journal of Personality Disorders'' '''8''' (4): 257-67.</ref><ref>Gardner, D.L.; R.W. Cowdry (1985). "Suicidal and parasuicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder". ''Psychiatric Clinics of North America'' '''8''' (2): 389-403.</ref> BPD is often characterized by multiple low lethality suicide attempts triggered by seemingly minor incidents, and less commonly by high lethality attempts that are attributed to impulsiveness or comorbid major depression, with interpersonal stressors appearing to be particularly common triggers.<ref>Brodsky, B.S.; S.A. Groves, M.A. Oquendo, et al. (June 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16805659&query_hl=15&itool=pubmed_docsum Interpersonal precipitants and suicide attempts in borderline personality disorder]". ''Suicide Life Threat Behav'' '''36''' (3): 313-22. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Ongoing family interactions and associated vulnerabilities can lead to self-destructive behavior.<ref name="parents"/> Stressful life events related to sexual abuse have been found to be a particular trigger for suicide attempts by adolescents with a BPD diagnosis.<ref>Horesh, N.; J. Sever, A. Apter (July &ndash; August 2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=12923705 A comparison of life events between suicidal adolescents with major depression and borderline personality disorder]". ''Compr Psychiatry'' '''44''' (4): 277-83. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>


===Differential diagnosis===
===Differential diagnosis===
Borderline personality disorder often co-occurs with mood disorders.  Some features of borderline personality disorder may overlap with those of mood disorders, complicating the differential diagnostic assessment.<ref>Bolton, S.; J.G. Gunderson (September 1996). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8780426&dopt=Abstract Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar disorder: differential diagnosis and implications]". ''Am J Psychiatry'' '''153''' (9): 1202-7. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref name="APAguide">(2001). "[http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/treatg/pg/BPD_05-15-06.pdf Treatment of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''APA Practice Guidelines''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>"[http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/diffdx.htm Differential Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''BPD Today''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>  
Borderline personality disorder often co-occurs with mood disorders.  Some features of borderline personality disorder may overlap with those of mood disorders, complicating the differential diagnostic assessment.<ref>Bolton, S.; J.G. Gunderson (September 1996). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8780426&dopt=Abstract Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar disorder: differential diagnosis and implications]". ''Am J Psychiatry '153''' (9): 1202-7.</ref><ref name="APAguide">(2001). "[http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/treatg/pg/BPD_05-15-06.pdf Treatment of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''APA Practice Guidelines''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>"[http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/diffdx.htm Differential Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''BPD Today''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>


Both diagnoses involve symptoms commonly known as "mood swings". In bipolar disorder, the term refers to the cyclic episodes of elevated and depressed mood generally lasting weeks or months. In the rapid cycling variant of bipolar disorder there are more than four episodes in a year, but even then the swings are more sustained than in borderline personality disorder.
Both diagnoses involve symptoms commonly known as "mood swings". In bipolar disorder, the term refers to the cyclic episodes of elevated and depressed mood generally lasting weeks or months. In the rapid cycling variant of bipolar disorder there are more than four episodes in a year, but even then the swings are more sustained than in borderline personality disorder. In borderline personality, the mood swings may arise and/or subside suddenly and dramatically and last for seconds, minutes, hours or days.
 
The term in borderline personality refers to the marked [[lability]] and reactivity of mood defined as [[emotional dysregulation]]. The behavior is typically in response to external [[psychosocial]] and [[intrapsychic]] stressors, and may arise and/or subside suddenly and dramatically and last for seconds, minutes, hours or days.


Bipolar depression is generally more pervasive with sleep and appetite disturbances, as well as a marked nonreactivity of mood, whereas mood with respect to borderline personality and co-occurring dysthymia remains markedly reactive and sleep disturbance not acute.<ref>Goodwin, F.K.; K.R. Jamison (1990). ''Manic-Depressive Illness''. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110. [[Special:Booksources/0195039343|ISBN 0-19-503934-3]].</ref>
Bipolar depression is generally more pervasive with sleep and appetite disturbances, as well as a marked nonreactivity of mood, whereas mood with respect to borderline personality and co-occurring dysthymia remains markedly reactive and sleep disturbance not acute.<ref>Goodwin, F.K.; K.R. Jamison (1990). ''Manic-Depressive Illness''. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110. [[Special:Booksources/0195039343|ISBN 0-19-503934-3]].</ref>
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The relationship between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder has been debated.  Some hold that the latter represents a subthreshold form of affective disorder,<ref>Akiskal, H.S.; B.I. Yerevanian, G.C. Davis, et al. (1985). "The nosologic status of borderline personality: Clinical and polysomnographic study". ''Am J Psychiatry'' (142): 192-8</ref><ref>Gunderson, J.G.; G.R. Elliott (1985). "The interface between borderline personality disorder and affective disorder". ''Am J Psychiatry''. (142):277-288.</ref> while others maintain the distinctness between the disorders, noting they often co-occur.<ref>McGlashan, T.H. (1983). "The borderline syndrome: Is it a variant of schizophrenia or affective disorder?" ''Arch Gen Psychiatry''. (40): 1319-23.</ref><ref>Pope, H.G. Jr.; J.M. Jonas, J.I. Hudson, et al. (1983). "The validity of DSM-III borderline personality disorder: A phenomenologic, family history, treatment response, and long term follow up study". ''Arch Gen Psychiatry'' (40): 23-30.</ref>
The relationship between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder has been debated.  Some hold that the latter represents a subthreshold form of affective disorder,<ref>Akiskal, H.S.; B.I. Yerevanian, G.C. Davis, et al. (1985). "The nosologic status of borderline personality: Clinical and polysomnographic study". ''Am J Psychiatry'' (142): 192-8</ref><ref>Gunderson, J.G.; G.R. Elliott (1985). "The interface between borderline personality disorder and affective disorder". ''Am J Psychiatry''. (142):277-288.</ref> while others maintain the distinctness between the disorders, noting they often co-occur.<ref>McGlashan, T.H. (1983). "The borderline syndrome: Is it a variant of schizophrenia or affective disorder?" ''Arch Gen Psychiatry''. (40): 1319-23.</ref><ref>Pope, H.G. Jr.; J.M. Jonas, J.I. Hudson, et al. (1983). "The validity of DSM-III borderline personality disorder: A phenomenologic, family history, treatment response, and long term follow up study". ''Arch Gen Psychiatry'' (40): 23-30.</ref>


===Co-morbidity===
===Co-morbid diagnoses===
[[Co-morbid]] (co-occurring) conditions in BPD are common. When comparing individuals diagnosed with BPD to those diagnosed with other kinds of personality disorders, the former showed a higher rate of also meeting criteria for:<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, E.D. Dubo, et al. (1998). "[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/155/12/1733 Axis I Comorbidity of Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''Am J Psychiatry''. (155): 1733-9. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>  
[[Co-morbidity|Co-morbid]] conditions in BPD are common. When comparing individuals diagnosed with BPD to those diagnosed with other kinds of personality disorders, the former showed a higher rate of also meeting criteria for:<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, E.D. Dubo, et al. (1998). "[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/155/12/1733 Axis I Comorbidity of Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''Am J Psychiatry''. (155): 1733-9.</ref>


* [[anxiety disorders]]
* [[anxiety disorders]]
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* and, to a lesser extent, [[somatoform disorders]]
* and, to a lesser extent, [[somatoform disorders]]


[[Substance abuse]] is a common problem in BPD, whether due to impulsivity or as a coping mechanism, and 50% to 70% of psychiatric inpatients with BPD have been found to meet criteria for a substance use disorder.<ref>Gregory, R. (2006). "[http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=194500290 Clinical Challenges in Co-occurring Borderline Personality and Substance Use Disorders]". ''Psychiatric Times'' '''XXIII''' (13). Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
[[Substance abuse]] is a common problem in BPD, whether due to impulsivity or as a coping mechanism, and 50% to 70% of psychiatric inpatients with BPD have been found to meet criteria for a substance use disorder.<ref>Gregory, R. (2006). "[http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=194500290 Clinical Challenges in Co-occurring Borderline Personality and Substance Use Disorders]". ''Psychiatric Times 'XXIII''' (13).</ref>
 
==The Borderline Profile==
The term "borderline" first appeared in clinical use during the 1930s, originating with the idea  posited by [[Otto Kernberg]] that some patients fell on the "borderline" between [[neurosis]] and [[psychosis]].  BPD became an official Axis II diagnosis in 1980 with the publication of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-III]]. <ref name="PToverview">Oldham, J. (July 2004). "[http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p040743.html Borderline Personality Disorder: An Overview]" ''Psychiatric Times 'XXI''' (8).</ref>
It has been noted that there is probably no other mental disorder about which so many articles and books have been written, yet about which so little is known based on empirical research.<ref name="cogemo">Arntz, A. (September 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16018875 Introduction to special issue: cognition and emotion in borderline personality disorder.]" ''J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry '36''' (3): 167-72.</ref>
 
Studies suggest that individuals with BPD tend to experience frequent, strong and long-lasting states of [[aversives|aversive]] tension, often triggered by perceived rejection, being alone, or perceived failure.<ref>Stiglmayr, C.E.; T. Grathwol, M.M. Leneham, et al. (May 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=1581973 Aversive tension in patients with borderline personality disorder: a computer-based controlled field study.]" ''Acta Psychiatr Scand '111''' (5): 372-9.</ref> Individuals with BPD may show [[lability]] (changeability) between anger and anxiety or between depression and anxiety<ref>Koenigsberg H.W.; P.D. Harvey, V. Mitropoulou, et al. (May 2002). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=11986132 Characterizing affective instability in borderline personality disorder]". ''Am J Psychiatry '159''' (5): 784-8.</ref> and temperamental sensitivity to emotive stimuli.<ref>Meyer, B.; M. Ajchenbrenner, D.P. Bowles (December 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16553560 Sensory sensitivity, attachment experiences, and rejection responses among adults with borderline and avoidant features]". ''J Personal Disord '19''' (6): 641-58.</ref>


==Prevalence==
The negative emotional states particularly associated with BPD have been grouped into four categories: extreme feelings in general; feelings of destructiveness or self-destructiveness; feelings of fragmentation or lack of identity; and feelings of victimization.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, C.J. DeLuca, et al. (1998). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10370445 The pain of being borderline: dysphoric states specific to borderline personality disorder]". ''Harvard Review of Psychiatry '6''' (4): 201-7.</ref>
Figures from surveys of the [[prevalence]] of diagnosable BPD in the general population vary, ranging from approximately 1% to 2%.<ref name=PToverview/><ref>Swartz, M.; D. Blazer, L. George, et al. (1990). "Estimating the prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the community". ''Journal of Personality Disorders'' '''4''' (3): 257-72. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> The diagnosis appears to be several times more common in (especially young) women than in men, by as much as 3:1 according to the DSM-IV-TR<ref>(2000). "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders". Washington, D.C.: ''American Psychiatric Association'' '''4''' Text Revision.</ref> although the reasons for this are not clear.<ref>Skodol, A.E.; D.S. Bender (2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=14686459&dopt=Abstract Why are women diagnosed borderline more than men?]" ''Psychiatr Q'' '''74''' (4): 349-60. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>


BPDs are disproportionately represented in prison populations: 23 percent of incarcerated men and 20 percent of incarcerated women are diagnosed with BPD.<ref name=prison>Singleton, N.; H. Meltzer, R. Gatward with The Department of Health ([[1998-10-13]]). ''[http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/DH_4007132 Psychiatric morbidity among prisoners in England and Wales]''. London: The Stationery Office. [[Special:Booksources/0116210451|ISBN 0116210451]]. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
Individuals with BPD can be very sensitive to the way others treat them, reacting strongly to perceived criticism or hurtfulness. Their feelings about others often shift from positive to negative, generally after a disappointment or perceived threat of losing someone. Self-image can also change rapidly from extremely positive to extremely negative. Impulsive behaviors are common, including alcohol or drug abuse, unsafe sex, gambling, and recklessness in general.<ref>American Psychiatric Association (2001). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=11726742&dopt=Abstract Psychiatric Services]". ''Psychiatr Serv'' (52): 1569-70.</ref> Attachment studies suggest individuals with BPD, while being high in intimacy- or novelty-seeking, can be hyper-alert<ref name="cogemo"/> to signs of rejection or not being valued and tend towards insecure, ambivalent, preoccupied or fearful attitudes towards relationships.<ref>Levy, K.N.; K.B. Meehan, M. Weber, et al. (March &ndash; April 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15802944 Attachment and borderline personality disorder: implications for psychotherapy]". ''Psychopathology '38''' (2): 64-74. </ref> They tend to view the world generally as dangerous and malevolent, and themselves as powerless, vulnerable, unacceptable and unsure in self-identity.<ref name="cogemo"/>


== Origin of terminology ==
Individuals with BPD are often described, including by some mental health professionals (and in the DSM-IV), as deliberately manipulative or difficult, but analyses and findings generally trace behaviors to inner pain and turmoil, powerlessness and defensive reactions, or limited coping and communication skills.<ref name="manipulative">Potter, N. (April 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16643118 What is manipulative behavior, anyway?]" ''J Personal Disord. '20''' (2): 139-56; discussion 181-5.</ref> <ref>McKay, D.; C.A. Gavigan, S. Kulchycky (2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=15224626 Social skills and sex-role functioning in borderline personality disorder: relationship to self-mutilating behavior]". ''Cogn Behav Ther '33''' (1): 27-35.</ref> <ref>Linehan, M. (1993). ''Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder.'' New York: Guilford. [[Special:Booksources/0898621836|ISBN 0898621836]].</ref> There has been limited research on family members' understanding of borderline personality disorder and the extent of burden or negative emotion experienced or expressed by family members.<ref>Hoffman, P.D.; E. Buteau, J.M. Hooley, et al. (2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14979218 Family members' knowledge about borderline personality disorder: correspondence with their levels of depression, burden, distress, and expressed emotion]". ''Family Process '42''' (4): 469-78.</ref> Parents of individuals with BPD have been reported to show co-existing extremes of over-involvement and under-involvement.<ref name="parents">Allen, D.M.; R.G. Farmer (January &ndash; February 1996). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=8770526 Family relationships of adults with borderline personality disorder]". ''Compr Psychiatry '37''' (1): 43-51.</ref> BPD has been linked to somewhat increased levels of chronic stress and conflict in romantic relationships, decreased satisfaction of romantic partners, abuse, and unwanted pregnancy; these links may largely be general to personality disorder and subsyndromal problems,<ref>Daley, S.E.; D. Burge, C. Hammen (August 2000). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=11016115 Borderline personality disorder symptoms as predictors of 4-year romantic relationship dysfunction in young women: addressing issues of specificity]". ''J Abnorm Psychol '109''' (3): 451-60.</ref> but such issues are commonly raised in support groups and published literature for partners of individuals with BPD.
There is a debate as to whether BPD should be renamed. The term "borderline" started in clinical use in the 1930s, originating in the idea (now out of favor) of some patients being on the "borderline" between [[neurosis]] and [[psychosis]]. BPD only became an official Axis II (personality) diagnosis in 1980 with the publication of DSM-III.<ref name="PToverview">Oldham, J. (July 2004). "[http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p040743.html Borderline Personality Disorder: An Overview]" ''Psychiatric Times'' '''XXI''' (8). Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>


Alternative suggestions for names include ''Emotional regulation disorder'' or ''Emotional dysregulation disorder''. According to TARA, (Treatment and Research Advancement Association for Personality Disorders) this terminology has "the most likely chance of being adopted by the American Psychiatric Association."<ref>Porr, Valerie (November 2001). [http://www.tara4bpd.org/ad.html How Advocacy is Bringing Borderline Personality Disorder Into the Light]. ''tara4bpd.org'' Axis II. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Emotional regulation disorder is the term favored by Dr. Marsha Linehan, pioneer of one of the most popular types of BPD therapy. ''Impulse disorder'' and ''Interpersonal regulatory disorder'' are other valid alternatives, according to Dr. John Gunderson of [[McLean Hospital]] in the United States. ''Dyslimbia'' has been suggested by Dr. Leland Heller<ref name=heller>Heller, L. MD. "[http://www.biologicalunhappiness.com/21a.htm A Possible New Name For Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''Biological Unhappiness''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> and ''Mercurial disorder'' has been proposed by McLean Hospital's Dr. [[Mary C. Zanarini|Mary Zanarini]].<ref>Hunter, Aina ([[2006-01-24]]). "[http://www.villagevoice.com/people/0604,hunter,71916,24.html Personality, Interrupted]". ''The Village Voice''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
Suicidal or self-harming behavior is one of the core diagnostic criteria in DSM IV-TR, and management of and recovery from this can be complex and challenging.<ref>Hawton, K.; E. Townsend, E. Arensman, et al. (1999). "[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001764.html Cochrane Collaboration Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments for deliberate self harm]". ''Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' (4). Art. No.: CD001764. [[DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001764]].</ref> The suicide rate is approximately eight to ten percent.<ref name=bpdtoday>[http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/facts.htm Borderline Personality Disorder Facts]. ''BPD Today''.</ref> The most recognized form of self-injury is automutilation (cutting the self), usually of the arms, but often other areas such as the legs, chest, belly, and face. Self-injury attempts are highly common among patients and may or may not be carried out with suicidal intent.<ref>Soloff, P.H.; J.A. Lis, T. Kelly, et al. (1994). "Self-mutilation and suicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder". ''Journal of Personality Disorders '8''' (4): 257-67.</ref><ref>Gardner, D.L.; R.W. Cowdry (1985). "Suicidal and parasuicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder". ''Psychiatric Clinics of North America '8''' (2): 389-403.</ref> BPD is often characterized by multiple low lethality suicide attempts triggered by seemingly minor incidents, and less commonly by high lethality attempts that are attributed to impulsiveness or comorbid major depression, with interpersonal stressors appearing to be particularly common triggers.<ref>Brodsky, B.S.; S.A. Groves, M.A. Oquendo, et al. (June 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16805659&query_hl=15&itool=pubmed_docsum Interpersonal precipitants and suicide attempts in borderline personality disorder]". ''Suicide Life Threat Behav '36''' (3): 313-22.</ref> Ongoing family interactions and associated vulnerabilities can lead to self-destructive behavior.<ref name="parents"/> Stressful life events related to sexual abuse have been found to be a particular trigger for suicide attempts by adolescents with a BPD diagnosis.<ref>Horesh, N.; J. Sever, A. Apter (July &ndash; August 2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=12923705 A comparison of life events between suicidal adolescents with major depression and borderline personality disorder]". ''Compr Psychiatry '44''' (4): 277-83.</ref>


Another term advanced (for example by psychiatrist Carolyn Quadrio) is ''Post Traumatic Personality Disorganisation'' (PTPD), reflecting the condition's status as (often) both a form of chronic [[Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD) and [[Personality Disorder]] and a common outcome of developmental or attachment trauma.<ref name="AxisOne/AxisTwo">Quadrio, C. (December 2005). "Axis One/Axis Two: A disordered borderline". ''Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry'' '''39''' (Suppl. 1): 141-156.</ref>
==Etiology==
BPD may result from a combination that can involve a traumatic childhood, a vulnerable temperament (possibly inherited), and stressful maturational events during [[adolescence]] or adulthood.<ref name="pmid9113824">{{cite journal| author=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR| title=Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder. | journal=J Pers Disord | year= 1997 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 | pages= 93-104 | pmid=9113824 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9113824 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15985870">{{cite journal| author=Pally R| title=The neurobiology of borderline personality disorder: the synergy of "nature and nurture". | journal=J Psychiatr Pract | year= 2002 | volume= 8 | issue= 3 | pages= 133-42 | pmid=15985870 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15985870 }} </ref>


Significantly, the above proposals, if adopted, will probably result in the recognition of BPD as a trauma- and/or mood-related disorder, and should move BPD from Axis II to Axis I in the next [[DSM]] (''DSM-V'', due in 2012).
An early theory, proposed by [[Otto Kernberg]], is that Borderline Personality is based on a premise of failure to develop in childhood.<ref name="pmid19411380">{{cite journal| author=Gunderson JG| title=Borderline personality disorder: ontogeny of a diagnosis. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 2009 | volume= 166 | issue= 5 | pages= 530-9 | pmid=19411380 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19411380 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121825 }} </ref> There are, according to Kernberg, 3 developmental tasks an individual must accomplish, and, when one fails to accomplish a certain developmental task, this often corresponds with an increased risk in developing certain psychopathologies. Failing the first developmental task of ''psychic clarification of self and other'', can result in an increased risk to develop varieties of psychosis. Not accomplishing the second task, ''overcoming splitting'', results in an increased risk to develop a borderline personality. <ref>Kernberg, O. (2000). ''Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism''. New York: Aronson. [[Special:Booksources/0876687621|ISBN 0876687621]].</ref>


Some who are [[labeling theory|labeled]] with "Borderline Personality Disorder" feel it is unhelpful and [[stigma]]tizing as well as simply inaccurate, supporting and adding to calls for a name change.<ref>Bogod, E. "[http://www.mental-health-matters.com/articles/article.php?artID=338 Borderline Personality Disorder Label Creates Stigma]". ''mental-health-matters.com''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Criticisms have also come from a [[feminist]] perspective.<ref>Shaw and Proctor (2005). "[http://fap.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/15/4/483 Women at the Margins: A Critique of the Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder]" (PDF). ''Feminism & Psychology'' '''15''': 483-90. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> It has also claimed that, in some circles, "borderline" is used as a "garbage can" diagnosis for individuals who are hard to diagnose, or is interpreted as meaning "nearly psychotic" despite a lack of empirical support for this conceptualization, or is used as a generic label for difficult clients or as an excuse for therapy going badly.<ref>Grohol, J. ([[June 22]] [[2007]]). "[http://psychcentral.com/disorders/sx10.htm Symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''PsychCentral.com''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
More recentlly, a neurobehavioural theory proposes that emotional dysregulation, also called affective  dysregulation, may be inherited and give a susceptibility to BPD.<ref name="pmid15288745"/> This  susceptibility may lead to manifesting BPD depending on adverse  childhood experiences with the result resembling a chronic  post-traumatic stress disorder<ref name="pmid15288745"/>.


==Etiology - causes and influences==
Researchers commonly believe that BPD results from a combination that can involve a traumatic childhood, a vulnerable temperament, and stressful maturational events during [[adolescence]] or adulthood.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg (1997). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9113824 Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder]". ''Journal of Personality Disorder.'' '''11''' (1): 93-104. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> [[Otto Kernberg]] formulated the theory of Borderline Personality based on a premise of failure to develop in childhood. There are, according to Kernberg, 3 developmental tasks an individual must accomplish, and, when one fails to accomplish a certain developmental task, this often corresponds with an increased risk in developing certain psychopathologies. Failing the first developmental task of ''psychic clarification of self and other'', can result in an increased risk to develop varieties of psychosis. Not accomplishing the second task, ''overcoming splitting'', results in an increased risk to develop a borderline personality. <ref>Kernberg, O. (2000). ''Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism''. New York: Aronson. [[Special:Booksources/0876687621|ISBN 0876687621]].</ref>
 
=== Childhood abuse, trauma or neglect ===
=== Childhood abuse, trauma or neglect ===
Numerous studies have shown a strong correlation between childhood abuse and development of BPD.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; J.G. Gunderson, et al. (January &ndash; February 1989). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=2924564&dopt=AbstractPlus Childhood experiences of borderline patients]". ''Comprehensive psychiatry'' '''30''' (1): 18-25. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>Brown G.R.; B. Anderson (1991). "[http://www.clogo.org/Archives/prd/lib/Brown1991.html Psychiatric morbidity in adult inpatients with childhood histories of sexual and physical abuse]". ''Am J Psychiatry'' '''148''' (1): 55-61. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref name = "Herman91">Herman, Judith (1997). ''Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence--from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror''. Basic Books. [[Special:Booksources/0465087302|ISBN 0465087302]].</ref><ref name="AxisOne/AxisTwo"/> Many individuals with BPD report having had a history of abuse, neglect, or separation as young children.<ref>Zanarini M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg (1997). "Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder". ''Journal of Personality Disorders'' '''11''' (1): 93-104.</ref> Patients with BPD have been found to be significantly more likely to report having been verbally, emotionally, physically, and sexually abused by caretakers of either gender. They were also much more likely to report having caretakers (of both genders) deny the validity of their thoughts and feelings. They were also reported to have failed to provide needed protection, and neglected their child's physical care. Parents (of both sexes) were typically reported to have withdrawn from the child emotionally, and to have treated the child inconsistently.  Additionally, women with BPD who reported a previous history of neglect by a female caretaker and abuse by a male caretaker were consequently at significantly higher risk for being sexually abused by a noncaretaker (not a parent).<ref name=failchild>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg (2000}. "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=11019749 Biparental failure in the childhood experiences of borderline patients]". ''J Personal Disord'' '''14''' (3):264-73. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> These are also the same risk factors for [[reactive attachment disorder]] and it has been suggested that children who experience chronic early maltreatment and Reactive Attachment Disorder go on to develop a variety of personality disorders, including Borderline Personality Disorder.<ref name="Dozier-1999">Dozier, M.; K. C. Stovall, et al. (1999). "Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood" in Cassidy, J.; P. Shaver (Eds.), ''Handbook of attachment'' pp. 497–519. New York: Guilford Press.</ref> Many of these children are violent<ref>Robins, L.N. (1978). "Longitudinal studies: Sturdy childhood predictors of adult
Numerous studies have shown a strong correlation between childhood abuse and development of BPD.<ref name="pmid2924564">{{cite journal| author=Zanarini MC, Gunderson JG, Marino MF, Schwartz EO, Frankenburg FR| title=Childhood experiences of borderline patients. | journal=Compr Psychiatry | year= 1989 Jan-Feb | volume= 30 | issue= 1 | pages= 18-25 | pmid=2924564 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2924564 }} </ref><ref name="pmid9247396">{{cite journal| author=Zanarini MC, Williams AA, Lewis RE, Reich RB, Vera SC, Marino MF et al.| title=Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 1997 | volume= 154 | issue= 8 | pages= 1101-6 | pmid=9247396 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9247396 }} </ref><ref>Brown G.R.; B. Anderson (1991). "[http://www.clogo.org/Archives/prd/lib/Brown1991.html Psychiatric morbidity in adult inpatients with childhood histories of sexual and physical abuse]". ''Am J Psychiatry 148'' (1): 55-61. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref name = "Herman91">Herman, Judith (1997). ''Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence--from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror''. Basic Books. [[Special:Booksources/0465087302|ISBN 0465087302]].</ref> Most (60%) patients with BPD self-report childhood sexual abuse<ref name="pmid9247396"/>, which is higher than the rate of 25% reported by adults from the general population<ref name="pmid11754674">{{cite journal| author=Dube SR, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, Williamson DF, Giles WH| title=Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and the risk of attempted suicide throughout the life span: findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. | journal=JAMA | year= 2001 | volume= 286 | issue= 24 | pages= 3089-96 | pmid=11754674 |doi=10.1001/jama.286.24.3089 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11754674 }} </ref>. Many individuals with BPD report having had a history of abuse, neglect, or separation as young children.<ref name="pmid9113824"/> Patients with BPD have been found to be significantly more likely to report having been verbally, emotionally, physically, and sexually abused by caretakers of either gender. They were also much more likely to report having caretakers (of both genders) deny the validity of their thoughts and feelings. They were also reported to have failed to provide needed protection, and neglected their child's physical care. Parents (of both sexes) were typically reported to have withdrawn from the child emotionally, and to have treated the child inconsistently.  Additionally, women with BPD who reported a previous history of neglect by a female caretaker and abuse by a male caretaker were consequently at significantly higher risk for being sexually abused by a noncaretaker (not a parent).<ref name="pmid11019749">{{cite journal| author=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Reich DB, Marino MF, Lewis RE, Williams AA et al.| title=Biparental failure in the childhood experiences of borderline patients. | journal=J Pers Disord | year= 2000 | volume= 14 | issue= 3 | pages= 264-73 | pmid=11019749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11019749 }} </ref>These are also the same risk factors for [[reactive attachment disorder]] and it has been suggested that children who experience chronic early maltreatment and Reactive Attachment Disorder go on to develop a variety of personality disorders, including Borderline Personality Disorder.<ref name="Dozier-1999">Dozier, M.; K. C. Stovall, et al. (1999). "Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood" in Cassidy, J.; P. Shaver (Eds.), ''Handbook of attachment'' pp. 497–519. New York: Guilford Press.</ref> Many of these children are violent<ref>Robins, L.N. (1978). "Longitudinal studies: Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behavior". ''Psychological Medicine'' (8): 611–22.</ref> and aggressive<ref>Prino, C.T., & M. Peyrot (1994). "The effect of child physical abuse and neglect on aggressive withdrawn, and prosocial behavior". ''Child Abuse and Neglect'' (18): 871–84.</ref> and as adults are at risk of developing a variety of psychological problems<ref>Schreiber, R.; W. J. Lyddon (1998). "Parental bonding and current psychological functioning among childhood sexual abuse survivors". ''Journal of Counseling Psychology'' (45): 358–362.</ref> such as borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Dozier-1999"/>
antisocial behavior". ''Psychological Medicine'' (8): 611–22.</ref> and aggressive<ref>Prino, C.T., & M. Peyrot (1994). "The effect of child physical abuse and neglect on aggressive withdrawn, and prosocial behavior". ''Child Abuse and Neglect'' (18): 871–84.</ref> and as adults are at risk of developing a variety of psychological problems<ref>Schreiber, R.; W. J. Lyddon (1998). "Parental bonding and current psychological functioning among childhood sexual abuse survivors". ''Journal of Counseling Psychology'' (45): 358–362.</ref> such as borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Dozier-1999"/>


According to Joel Paris,<ref name ="Paris">Paris, Joel MD. "[http://www.jwoodphd.com/borderline_personality_disorder.htm Borderline Personality Disorder: What Is It, What Causes It? How Can We Treat It?]" ''jwoodphd.com''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]]. </ref> "Some researchers, like Judith Herman, believe that BPD is a name given to a particular manifestation of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD): in ''Trauma and Recovery'', she theorizes that when PTSD takes a form that emphasizes heavily its elements of identity and relationship disturbance, it gets called BPD; when the somatic (body) elements are emphasized, it gets called hysteria, and when the dissociative/deformation of consciousness elements are the focus, it gets called DID/MPD" ([[dissociative identity disorder]] or [[multiple personality disorder]]).
According to Joel Paris,<ref name ="Paris">Paris, Joel MD. "[http://www.jwoodphd.com/borderline_personality_disorder.htm Borderline Personality Disorder: What Is It, What Causes It? How Can We Treat It?]" ''jwoodphd.com''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]]. </ref> "Some researchers, like Judith Herman, believe that BPD is a name given to a particular manifestation of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD): in ''Trauma and Recovery'', she theorizes that when PTSD takes a form that emphasizes heavily its elements of identity and relationship disturbance, it gets called BPD; when the somatic (body) elements are emphasized, it gets called hysteria, and when the dissociative/deformation of consciousness elements are the focus, it gets called DID/MPD" ([[dissociative identity disorder]] or [[multiple personality disorder]]).
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Some studies suggest that BPD may not necessarily be a trauma-spectrum disorder and that it is biologically distinct from the post traumatic stress disorder that could be a precursor. The personality symptom clusters seem to be related to specific abuses, but they may be related to more persistent aspects of interpersonal and family environments in childhood.<ref name=neurotrauma/>
Some studies suggest that BPD may not necessarily be a trauma-spectrum disorder and that it is biologically distinct from the post traumatic stress disorder that could be a precursor. The personality symptom clusters seem to be related to specific abuses, but they may be related to more persistent aspects of interpersonal and family environments in childhood.<ref name=neurotrauma/>


There is evidence for the central role of family in the development of BPD, including interactions that are negative and critical rather than supportive and empathic, with parental and family behaviors transacting with the child's own behaviors and emotional vulnerabilities.<ref>Fruzzetti, A.E.; C. Shenk, P.D. Hoffman (2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16613428 Family interaction and the development of borderline personality disorder: a transactional model]". ''Dev Psychopathol.'' '''17''' (4): 1007-30. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>
There is evidence for the central role of family in the development of BPD, including interactions that are negative and critical rather than supportive and empathic, with parental and family behaviors transacting with the child's own behaviors and emotional vulnerabilities.<ref>Fruzzetti, A.E.; C. Shenk, P.D. Hoffman (2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16613428 Family interaction and the development of borderline personality disorder: a transactional model]". ''Dev Psychopathol. '17''' (4): 1007-30. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref>


Some findings suggest that BPD may lie on a [[bipolar spectrum]], with a number of points of phenomenological and biological overlap between the affective lability criterion of borderline personality disorder and the extremely rapid cycling bipolar disorders.<ref>Mackinnon, D.F.; R. Pies (February 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16411976 Affective instability as rapid cycling: theoretical and clinical implications for borderline personality and bipolar spectrum disorders]". ''Bipolar Disord.'' '''8''' (1): 1-14. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>Goldberg, Ivan MD (February 2006). "[http://www.psycom.net/depression.central.bordbipol.html MMEDLINE Citations on The Borderline-Bipolar Connection]". ''Bipolar disord.'' '''8''' (1): 1-14. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Some findings suggest that the DSM-IV BPD diagnosis mixes up two sets of unrelated items&mdash;an affective instability dimension related to Bipolar-II, and an impulsivity dimension not related to Bipolar-II.<ref>Benazzi, F. (January 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16019119 Borderline personality-bipolar spectrum relationship]". ''Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry'' '''30''' (1): 68-74. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
Some findings suggest that BPD may lie on a [[bipolar spectrum]], with a number of points of phenomenological and biological overlap between the affective lability criterion of borderline personality disorder and the extremely rapid cycling bipolar disorders.<ref>Mackinnon, D.F.; R. Pies (February 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16411976 Affective instability as rapid cycling: theoretical and clinical implications for borderline personality and bipolar spectrum disorders]". ''Bipolar Disord. '8''' (1): 1-14. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref><ref>Goldberg, Ivan MD (February 2006). "[http://www.psycom.net/depression.central.bordbipol.html MMEDLINE Citations on The Borderline-Bipolar Connection]". ''Bipolar disord. '8''' (1): 1-14. Retrieved on [[2007-09-21]].</ref> Some findings suggest that the DSM-IV BPD diagnosis mixes up two sets of unrelated items&mdash;an affective instability dimension related to Bipolar-II, and an impulsivity dimension not related to Bipolar-II.<ref>Benazzi, F. (January 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16019119 Borderline personality-bipolar spectrum relationship]". ''Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry '30''' (1): 68-74. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>


=== Genetics ===
=== Genetics ===
An overview of the existing literature suggested that traits related to BPD are influenced by genes, and since personality is generally quite heritable then BPD should also be, but studies have had methodological problems and the links are not yet clear.<ref>Torgersen, S. (March 2000). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10729927&query_hl=8&itool=pubmed_docsum Genetics of patients with borderline personality disorder]". ''Psychiatr Clin North Am'' '''23''' (1): 1-9. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> A major twin study found that if one identical twin met criteria for BPD, the other also met criteria in around a third (35%) of cases.<ref>Torgersen, S.; S. Lygren, P.A. Oien, et al. (November - December 2000). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=11086146 A twin study of personality disorders]". ''Compr Psychiatry'' '''41''' (6): 416-25. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
An overview of the existing literature suggested that traits related to BPD are influenced by genes, and since personality is generally quite heritable then BPD should also be, but studies have had methodological problems and the links are not yet clear.<ref name="pmid10729927">{{cite journal| author=Torgersen S| title=Genetics of patients with borderline personality disorder. | journal=Psychiatr Clin North Am | year= 2000 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages= 1-9 | pmid=10729927 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10729927 }} </ref> A major [[twin study]] found that if one identical twin met criteria for BPD, the other also met criteria in around a third (35%) of cases, whereas the concordance rate in dizygotic twin pairs was 7% in monozygotic, yielding an inheritance of 0.69.<ref name="pmid11086146">{{cite journal| author=Torgersen S, Lygren S, Oien PA, Skre I, Onstad S, Edvardsen J et al.| title=A twin study of personality disorders. | journal=Compr Psychiatry | year= 2000 Nov-Dec | volume= 41 | issue= 6 | pages= 416-25 | pmid=11086146 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11086146 | doi=10.1053/comp.2000.16560 }} </ref>
   
 
Twin, sibling and other family studies indicate a partially heritable basis for impulsive aggression, but studies of serotonin-related genes to date have suggested only modest contributions to behavior.<ref name=neurotrauma/>
Twin, sibling and other family studies indicate a partially heritable basis for impulsive aggression, but studies of serotonin-related genes to date have suggested only modest contributions to behavior.<ref name=neurotrauma/>


Line 88: Line 82:
[[Neurotransmitters]] implicated in BPD include [[serotonin]], [[norepinephrine]] and [[acetylcholine]] (related to various emotions and moods); [[GABA]], the brain's major inhibitory [[neurotransmitter]] (which can stabilize mood change); and [[glutamate]], an excitatory neurotransmitter.
[[Neurotransmitters]] implicated in BPD include [[serotonin]], [[norepinephrine]] and [[acetylcholine]] (related to various emotions and moods); [[GABA]], the brain's major inhibitory [[neurotransmitter]] (which can stabilize mood change); and [[glutamate]], an excitatory neurotransmitter.


Enhanced [[amygdala]] activation in BPD has been identified as reflecting the intense and slowly subsiding emotions commonly observed in BPD in response to even low-level stressors.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}<!-- The following ref has URL which does not correspond with given information. <ref>Herpertz, S.C.; T.M. Dietrich, B. Wenning, et al. (August 2001). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=Display&DB=pubmed Evidence of abnormal amygdala functioning in borderline personality disorder: a functional MRI study]". ''Biol Psychiatry'' '''15''';50(4):292-8.</ref> --> The activation of both the amygdala and prefrontal cortical areas can reflect attempts to control intensive emotions during the recall of unresolved life events.<ref>Beblo, T.; M. Driessen, M. Mertens, et al. (June 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16704749 Functional MRI correlates of the recall of unresolved life events in borderline personality disorder]". ''Psychol Med'' '''36''' (6): 845-56. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Impulsivity or aggression, as sometimes seen in BPD, has been linked to alterations in serotonin function and specific brain regions in the [[cingulate]] and the medial and orbital [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name=neurotrauma>Goodman M.; A. New, L. Siever (2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15677398&query_hl=7&itool=pubmed_docsum Trauma, genes, and the neurobiology of personality disorders]". ''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' (1032): 104-16. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
Enhanced [[amygdala]] activation in BPD has been identified as reflecting the intense and slowly subsiding emotions commonly observed in BPD in response to even low-level stressors.<!-- The following ref has URL which does not correspond with given information. <ref>Herpertz, S.C.; T.M. Dietrich, B. Wenning, et al. (August 2001). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=Display&DB=pubmed Evidence of abnormal amygdala functioning in borderline personality disorder: a functional MRI study]". ''Biol Psychiatry '15''';50(4):292-8.</ref> --> The activation of both the amygdala and prefrontal cortical areas can reflect attempts to control intensive emotions during the recall of unresolved life events.<ref>Beblo, T.; M. Driessen, M. Mertens, et al. (June 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16704749 Functional MRI correlates of the recall of unresolved life events in borderline personality disorder]". ''Psychol Med '36''' (6): 845-56. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Impulsivity or aggression, as sometimes seen in BPD, has been linked to alterations in serotonin function and specific brain regions in the [[cingulate]] and the medial and orbital [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name=neurotrauma>Goodman M.; A. New, L. Siever (2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15677398&query_hl=7&itool=pubmed_docsum Trauma, genes, and the neurobiology of personality disorders]". ''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' (1032): 104-16.</ref>


==Treatment==
==Treatment==
A recent study found that any of three types of psychotherapy stimulate substantial improvements in people with this disorder.<ref name="Clarkin">Clarkin, J. ([[June 16]] [[2007]]) "Science News". ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' '''171''' (24): 374.</ref>  The three approaches studied were Dialectical behavior therapy, transference-focused therapy, and schema-focused therapy.  "Psychotherapy that centers on emotional themes arising in the interaction between patient and therapist, known as transference-focused therapy, stimulates the most change in people with borderline personality disorder."<ref name="Clarkin"/>
Various [[psychotherapy|psychotherapies]] for patients with BPD have been studied in [[randomized controlled trial]]s including dialectical behavior therapy<ref name="pmid16818865">{{cite journal| author=Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, Brown MZ, Gallop RJ, Heard HL et al.| title=Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder. | journal=Arch Gen Psychiatry | year= 2006 | volume= 63 | issue= 7 | pages= 757-66 | pmid=16818865
 
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16818865 | doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.757 }}  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17255387 Review in: Evid Based Ment Health. 2007 Feb;10(1):18] </ref><ref  name="pmid19755574">{{cite  journal| author=McMain SF, Links PS, Gnam WH, Guimond T, Cardish  RJ, Korman L et al.| title=A randomized trial of dialectical behavior  therapy versus general psychiatric management for borderline personality  disorder. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 2009 | volume= 166 | issue=  12 | pages= 1365-74 | pmid=19755574 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19755574  | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09010039 }} </ref>, mentalization based treatment<ref name="pmid19833787">{{cite journal| author=Bateman A, Fonagy P| title=Randomized controlled trial of outpatient mentalization-based treatment versus structured clinical management for borderline personality disorder. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 2009 | volume= 166 | issue= 12 | pages= 1355-64 | pmid=19833787 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040539 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19833787  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20148147">{{cite journal| author=Bateman A, Fonagy P| title=Mentalization based treatment for borderline personality disorder. | journal=World Psychiatry | year= 2010 | volume= 9 | issue= 1 | pages= 11-5 | pmid=20148147
===Psychotherapy===
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20148147 | pmc=PMC2816926 }} </ref>, schema-focused therapy<ref name="pmid16754838">{{cite journal| author=Giesen-Bloo J, van Dyck R, Spinhoven P, van Tilburg W, Dirksen C, van Asselt T et al.| title=Outpatient psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: randomized trial of schema-focused therapy vs transference-focused psychotherapy. | journal=Arch Gen Psychiatry | year= 2006 | volume= 63 | issue= 6 | pages= 649-58 | pmid=16754838
There has traditionally been skepticism about the psychological treatment of [[personality disorders]], but several specific types of [[psychotherapy]] for BPD have developed in recent years. The limited studies to date do not allow confident claims of effectiveness but do suggest that people with a diagnosis of BPD can benefit on at least some outcome measures.<ref name ="Cochranepsychotherapy">Binks, C.A.; M. Fenton, L. McCarthy, et al. (2006). "[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005652.html Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder]". ''Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews'' '''25''' (1): CD005652. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Simple supportive therapy alone may enhance self-esteem and mobilize the existing strengths of individuals with BPD.<ref>Aviram, R.B.; D.J. Hellerstein, J. Gerson, et al. (May 2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15330220&dopt=Abstract Adapting supportive psychotherapy for individuals with Borderline personality disorder who self-injure or attempt suicide]". ''J Psychiatr Pract'' '''10''' (3): 145-55. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Specific psychotherapies may involve sessions over several months or, as is particularly common for personality disorders, several years. Psychotherapy can often be conducted either with individuals or with groups. Group therapy can aid the learning and practice of interpersonal skills and self-awareness by individuals with BPD<ref name=AMN>Gunderson, J.G. MD ([[2006-04-10]]). "[http://www.health.am/psy/more/borderline_personality_disorder_psychotherapies "Borderline Personality Disorder - Psychotherapies]". ''American Medical Network''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> although drop-out rates may be problematic.<ref>Hummelen, B.; T. Wilberg, S. Karterud (January 2007). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17266430 Interviews of female patients with borderline personality disorder who dropped out of group psychotherapy]". ''Int J Group Psychother'' '''57''' (1): 67-91. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16754838 | doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.6.649 }} </ref>, Dynamic Deconstructive Psychotherapy ([http://www.upstate.edu/psych/education/psychotherapy/dynamic_decon.php DDP])<ref name="pmid20386259">{{cite journal| author=Gregory RJ, DeLucia-Deranja E, Mogle JA| title=Dynamic deconstructive psychotherapy versus optimized community care for borderline personality disorder co-occurring with alcohol use disorders: a 30-month follow-up. | journal=J Nerv Ment Dis | year= 2010 | volume= 198 | issue= 4 | pages= 292-8 | pmid=20386259 | doi=10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181d6172d | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20386259  }} </ref>, and transference-focused psychotherapy<ref name="pmid17541052">{{cite journal| author=Clarkin JF, Levy KN, Lenzenweger MF, Kernberg OF| title=Evaluating three treatments for borderline personality disorder: a multiwave study. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 2007 | volume= 164 | issue= 6 | pages= 922-8 | pmid=17541052 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17541052 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.922 }}  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18223059 Review in: Evid Based Ment Health. 2008 Feb;11(1):24] </ref>
   
====Dialectical behavioral therapy====
In the 1990s, a new psychosocial treatment termed [[Dialectical Behavioral Therapy]] (DBT) became established in the treatment of BPD, having originally developed as an intervention for patients with suicidal behavior.<ref>Koerner, K.; M.M. Linehan (2000). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=10729937 Research on dialectical behavior therapy for patients with borderline personality disorder]". ''Psychiatric Clinics of North America'' '''23''' (1): 151-67. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
Dialectical behavior therapy is derived from [[Cognitive-behavioral therapy|cognitive-behavioral techniques]] (and can be seen as a form of CBT) but emphasizes an exchange and negotiation between therapist and client, between the rational and the emotional, and between acceptance and change (hence [[dialectic]]). Treatment targets are agreed upon, with self-harm issues taking priority. The learning of new skills is a core component - including [[mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness (e.g. [[assertiveness]] and social skills), coping adaptively with distress and crises; and identifying and regulating emotional reactions.  
 
DBT can be based on a biosocial theory of personality functioning in which BPD is seen as a biological disorder of emotional regulation in a social environment experienced as invalidating by the borderline patient.<ref name=promising>Murphy, E. T. PhD; J. Gunderson MD (January 1999). "[http://web.archive.org/web/19991014032825/http://www.mcleanhospital.org/psychupdate/psyupI-3.htm A Promising TreatmentBorderline Personality Disorder]". ''McLean Hospital Psychiatic Update''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
Dialectical behavioral therapy has been found to significantly reduce self-injury and suicidal behavior in individuals with BPD, beyond the effect of usual or expert treatment, and to be better accepted by clients.<ref>Verheul, R.; L.M. Van Den Bosch, M.W. Koeter, et al. (February 2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12562741&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum Dialectical behavioural therapy for women with borderline personality disorder: 12-month, randomised clinical trial in The Netherlands]". ''British Journal of Psychiatry'' (182): 135-40. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref><ref>Linehan, M.M.; K.A. Comtois, A.M. Murray, et al. (July 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16818865 Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder]". ''Archives of General Psychiatry'' '''63''' (7): 757-66. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> although whether it has additional efficacy in the overall treatment of BPD appears less clear.<ref name="Cochranepsychotherapy"/> Training nurses in the use of DBT has been found to replace a therapeutic pessimism with a more optimistic understanding and outlook.<ref>Hazelton, M.; R. Rossiter, J. Milner (February - March 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16594889 Managing the 'unmanageable': training staff in the use of dialectical behaviour therapy for borderline personality disorder]". ''Contemporary Nurse'' '''21''' (1): 120-30. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Schema therapy====
Schema therapy (also called schema-focused therapy) is an integrative approach based on cognitive-behavioral or skills-based techniques along with [[Object relations theory|object relations]] and [[Gestalt therapy|gestalt approaches]].  It directly targets deeper aspects of emotion, personality and [[Schema (psychology)|schemas]] (fundamental ways of categorizing and reacting to the world). The treatment also focuses on the [[Transference|relationship with the therapist]] (including a process of "limited re-parenting"), daily life outside of therapy, and traumatic childhood experiences. It was developed by Jeffrey Young and became established in the 1990s.  Limited recent research suggests that it is significantly more effective than transference-focused psychotherapy, with half of individuals with borderline personality disorder assessed as having achieved full recovery after 4 years, with two thirds showing clinically significant improvement.<ref name="SFTvsTFT">Giesen-Bloo, J.; R. van Dyck, P. Spinhoven, et al. (June 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16754838 Outpatient psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: randomized trial of schema-focused therapy vs transference-focused psychotherapy]". ''Archives of General Psychiatry'' '''63''' (6): 649-58. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref><ref>Darden, M. ([[2006-10-10]]). "[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-10/ppmr-nhf101006.php New hope for an 'untreatable' mental illness]". ''EurekAlert!'' Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Another very small trial has also suggested efficacy.<ref>Nordahl, H.M., T.E. Nysaeter (September 2005). "[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=16983362 Schema therapy for patients with borderline personality disorder: a single case series]". ''J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry'' '''36''' (3): 254-64. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Cognitive behavioral therapy====
[[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) is the most widely used and established psychological treatment for mental disorders, but has appeared less successful in BPD, due partly to difficulties in developing a therapeutic relationship and treatment adherence. Approaches such as DBT and Schema-focused therapy developed partly as an attempt to expand and add to traditional CBT, which uses a limited number of sessions to target specific maladaptive patterns of thought, perception and behavior. A recent study did find a number of sustained benefits of CBT, in addition to treatment as usual, after an average of 16 sessions over one year.<ref>Davidson, K.; J. Norrie, P. Tyrer, et al. (October 2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17032158 The effectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder: results from the borderline personality disorder study of cognitive therapy (BOSCOT) trial]". ''Journal of Personality Disorders'' '''20''' (5): 450-65. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
   
[[Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing]] (EMDR) is a treatment for PTSD, a condition closely associated to BPD in many cases. It is similar to CBT, and seen by some as a type of CBT, but also includes unique techniques intended to facilitate full emotional processing and coming to terms with traumatic memories.
 
====Psychoanalysis====
Traditional [[psychoanalysis]] has become less commonly used than in the past, both in general and in regard to BPD. This intervention has been linked to an exacerbation of BPD symptoms<ref name=no_to_psychoanalysis>"[http://www.medical-library.org/journals2a/borderline.htm Borderline Personality Disorder]". Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> although there is also evidence of effectiveness of certain techniques in the context of partial hospitalization.<ref>Bateman, A.; P. Fonagy (January 2001). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=11136631 Treatment of borderline personality disorder with psychoanalytically oriented partial hospitalization: an 18-month follow-up]". ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' '''158''' (1): 36-42. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Transference-focused psychotherapy====
Transference-focused psychotherapy (TFP) is a form of psychoanalytic therapy dating to the 1960s, rooted in the conceptions of [[Otto Kernberg]] on BPD and its underlying structure (borderline personality organization). Unlike in the case of traditional psychoanalysis, the therapist plays a very active role in TFP.  In session the therapist works on the relationship between the patient and the therapist. The therapist will try to explore and clarify aspects of this relationship so the underlying [[object relations]] dyads become clear.  Some limited research on TFP suggests it may reduce some symptoms of BPD by affecting certain underlying processes,<ref>Levy, K.N.; J.F. Clarkin, L.N. Scott, et al. (2006). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16470612 The mechanisms of change in the treatment of borderline personality disorder with transference focused psychotherapy]". ''Journal of Clinical Psychology'' (62): 481-501. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> and that TFP in comparison to [[dialectical behavioral therapy]] and supportive therapy results in increased reflective functioning (the ability to realistically think about how others think) and a more secure [[Attachment theory|attachment style]].<ref>Levy, K.N.; K.B. Meehan, K.M. Kelly, et al. (2006). "Change in attachment patterns and reflective function in a randomized control trial of transference-focused psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder". ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology'' (74): 1027-1040.</ref>  Furthermore, TFP has been shown to be as effective as DBT in improvement of suicidal behavior, and has been more effective than DBT in alleviating anger and in reducing verbal or direct assaultive behavior.<ref>Clarkin, J.F. PhD; K.N. Levy, PhD, M. F. Lenzenweger, PhD, et al. (June 2007). "[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/164/6/922 Evaluating Three Treatments for Borderline Personality Disorder: A Multiwave Study]". ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'' (164): 922-928. {{doi|10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.922}}. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Limited research suggests that TFP appears to be less effective than schema-focused therapy, while being more effective than no treatment.<ref name="SFTvsTFT"/>
 
====Cognitive analytic therapy====
[[Cognitive analytic therapy]] (CAT) combines cognitive and psychoanalytic approaches and has been adapted for use with individuals with BPD with mixed results.<ref>Ryle, A. (February 2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15061342&dopt=Abstract The contribution of cognitive analytic therapy to the treatment of borderline personality disorder]". ''J Personal Disord'' '''18''' (1): 3-35. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
===Medication===
A number of medications are used in conjunction with BPD treatments, although the evidence base is limited.  As BPD has been traditionally considered a primarily psychosocial condition, medication is intended to treat co-morbid symptoms, such as anxiety and depression, rather than BPD itself.<ref name ="Cochranepharm">Binks, C.A.; M. Fenton, L. McCarthy, et al. (2006). "[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005653.html Pharmacological interventions for people with borderline personality disorder]". ''The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' (4). Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Antidepressants====
[[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]] (SSRI) [[antidepressant]]s have been shown in [[randomized controlled trials]] to improve the attendant symptoms of anxiety and depression, such as anger and hostility, associated with BPD in some patients.<ref name ="Cochranepharm"/> According to ''[[Listening to Prozac]]'', it takes a higher dose of an SSRI to treat mood disorders associated with BPD than depression alone. It also takes about three months for benefit to appear, compared to the three to six weeks for depression.
 
====Antipsychotics====
The newer [[atypical antipsychotics]] are claimed to have an improved [[adverse effect]] profile than the [[typical antipsychotics]]. Antipsychotics are also sometimes used to treat distortions in thinking or false perceptions.<ref>Siever, L.J.; H.W. Koenigsberg (2000). "[http://www.dana.org/pdf/cerebrum/art_v2n4sieverkoenigsberg.pdf The frustrating no-man's-land of borderline personality disorder]" (PDF). ''Cerebrum, The Dana Forum on Brain Science'' '''2''' (4). Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Use of antipsychotics has varied, from intermittent, for a brief psychotic or dissociative episode, to more general, particularly atypical antipsychotics, for both those diagnosed with bipolar disorder (BiP), as well as those diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD).
 
One [[meta-analysis]] of 14 prior studies has suggested that several atypical antipsychotics, including [[olanzapine]], [[clozapine]], [[quetiapine]] and [[risperidone]], may help BPD patients with psychotic-like, impulsive or suicidal symptoms.<ref>Grootens, K.P.; R.J. Verkes (January 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15706462&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Emerging evidence for the use of atypical antipsychotics in borderline personality disorder]". ''Pharmacopsychiatry'' '''38''' (1): 20-3. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> 
 
Long-term use of antipsychotics is particularly controversial. There are numerous adverse effects with the older medications, notably [[Tardive dyskinesia]] (TDK).<ref name=caseyde>Casey, D.E. (1985). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2860664&dopt=Abstract Tardive dyskinesia: reversible and irreversible]". ''Psychopharmacology Suppl'' (2): 88-97. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Atypical [[antipsychotic]]s are also known for often causing considerable weight gain, with associated health complications.<ref>Ruetsch, O.; A. Viala, H. Bardou, et al. (July - August 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16389718 Psychotropic drugs induced weight gain: a review of the literature concerning epidemiological data, mechanisms and management]". ''Encephale'' (4 Pt 1): 507-16. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
===Mental health services and recovery===
Individuals with BPD sometimes need extensive mental health services and have been found to account for around 20% of psychiatric hospitalizations.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; Frankenburg, F.R. (March - April 2001). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=11244151 Treatment histories of borderline inpatients]". ''Comprehensive Psychiatry'' '''42'''(2): 144-50. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> The majority of BPD patients continue to use outpatient treatment in a sustained manner for several years, but the number using the more restrictive and costly forms of treatment, such as inpatient admission, declines with time.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, J. Hennen, et al. (January 2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14744165 Mental health service utilization by borderline personality disorder patients and Axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for 6 years]". ''J Clin Psychiatry'' '''65''' (1): 28-36. Retrieved [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Experience of services varies.<ref>Fallon, P. (August 2003). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12887630&dopt=Abstract Travelling through the system: the lived experience of people with borderline personality disorder in contact with psychiatric services]". ''J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs'' '''10''' (4): 393-401. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Assessing suicide risk can be a challenge for mental health services (and patients themselves tend to underestimate the lethality of self-injurious behaviours) with typically a chronically elevated risk of suicide much above that of the general population and a history of multiple attempts when in crisis.<ref>Links, P.; Y. Bergmans, S. Warwar ([[July 1]] [[2004]]). "[http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/Suicidal-Behavior/showArticle.jhtml?articleId=175802408 Assessing Suicide Risk in Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder]". ''Psychiatric Times'' '''XXI''' (8). Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
Particular difficulties have been observed in the relationship between care providers and individuals diagnosed with BPD. A majority of psychiatric staff report finding individuals with BPD moderately to extremely difficult to "deal" with, and more difficult than other client groups.<ref>Cleary, M.; N. Siegfried, G. Walter (September 2002). "[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/ano/2002/00000011/00000003/art00007 Experience, knowledge and attitudes of mental health staff regarding clients with a borderline personality disorder]". ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology'' '''11''' (3): 186-191. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> On the other hand, those with the diagnosis of BPD have reported that the term "BPD" felt like a [[pejorative]] [[labeling theory|label]] rather than a helpful diagnosis, that self destructive behaviour was wrongly perceived as manipulative, and that they had limited access to care.<ref>Nehls, N. (August 1999). "[http://ebmh.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/3/1/32#R1 Borderline personality disorder: the voice of patients]". ''Res Nurs Health'' (22): 285–93. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> Attempts are made to improve public and staff attitudes.<ref>Deans, C.; E. Meocevic "[http://www.contemporarynurse.com/21.1/21.1.7.html Attitudes of registered psychiatric nurses towards patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder]". ''Contemporary Nurse''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref><ref>Krawitz, R. (July 2004). "[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-1614.2004.01409.x?journalCode=anp Borderline personality disorder: attitudinal change following training]". ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry'' '''38''' (7): 554. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Combining pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy====
In practice, psychotherapy and medication may often be combined but there are limited data on clinical practice<ref name ="APAguide"/> Efficacy studies often assess the effectiveness of interventions when added to 'treatment as usual' (TAU), which may involve general psychiatric services, supportive counselling, medication and psychotherapy.
 
One small study, which excluded individuals with a comorbid Axis 1 disorder, has indicated that outpatients undergoing Dialectical Behavioral Therapy and taking the antipsychotic Olanzapine show significantly more improvement on some measures related to BPD, compared to those undergoing DBT and taking a placebo pill,<ref>Soler, J.; J.C. Pascual, J. Campins, et al. (June 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15930077&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of dialectical behavior therapy plus olanzapine for borderline personality disorder]". ''Am J Psychiatry'' '''162''' (6): 1221-4. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> although they also experienced weight gain and raised cholesterol. Another small study found that patients who had undergone DBT and then took fluoxetine (Prozac) showed no significant improvements, whereas those who underwent DBT and then took a placebo pill did show significant improvements.<ref name=dbtfluox>Simpson, E.B.; S. Yen, E. Costello, et al. (March 2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=15096078 Combined dialectical behavior therapy and fluoxetine]". ''Journal of Clinical Psychiatry'' '''65''' (3): 379-85. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Difficulties in therapy====
There can be unique challenges in the treatment of BPD, for example hospital care.<ref>Kaplan, C.A. (September 1986). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=3638699 The challenge of working with patients diagnosed as having a borderline personality disorder]". ''Nurs Clin North Am'' '''21''' (3): 429-38. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref> In psychotherapy, a client may be unusually sensitive to rejection and abandonment and may react negatively (e.g., by harming themselves or withdrawing from treatment) if they sense this. In addition, clinicians may emotionally distance themselves from individuals with BPD for self-protection or due to the stigma associated with the diagnosis, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy and a cycle of stigmatization to which both patient and therapist can contribute.<ref>Aviram, R.B.; B.S. Brodsky, B. Stanley (October 2006). "[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/content/g886500785w755g6/ Borderline Personality Disorder, Stigma, and Treatment Implications]". ''Harvard Review of Psychiatry'' '''14''' (5). Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
Some psychotherapies, for example DBT, developed partly to overcome problems with interpersonal sensitivity and maintaining a therapeutic relationship. Adherence to medication regimes is also a problem, due in part to [[adverse effects]], with drop-out rates of between 50% and 88% in medication trials.<ref>American Psychiatric Association (October 2001). "Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder". ''Am J Psychiatry''.</ref> Comorbid disorders, particularly substance use disorders, can complicate attempts to achieve remission.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, J. Hennen, et al. (2004). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=15514413 Axis I comorbidity in patients with borderline personality disorder: 6-year follow-up and prediction of time to remission]". ''Am J Psychiatry'' '''161''' (11): 2108-14. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
====Other strategies====
Psychotherapies and medications form a part of the overall context of mental health services and psychosocial needs related to BPD. The evidence base is limited for both, and some individuals may forego them or not benefit (enough) from them. It has been argued that diagnostic categorisation can have limited utility in directing therapeutic work in this area, and that in some cases it is only with reference to past and current relationships that "borderline" behavior can be understood as partly adaptive and how people can best be helped.<ref>Warner, S.; T. Wilkins (2004). "[http://www.springerlink.com/content/l440244686765312/ Between Subjugation and Survival: Women, Borderline Personality Disorder and High Security Mental Hospitals]". ''Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy'' '''34''' (3): 1573-3564. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
Numerous other strategies may be used, including [[alternative medicine]] techniques (see [[List of branches of alternative medicine]]), exercise and physical fitness, including team sports; occupational therapy techniques, including creative arts; having structure and routine to the days, particularly through employment - helping feelings of competence (e.g. [[self-efficacy]]), having a social role and being valued by others, boosting [[self-esteem]].<ref>Flory, L. (2004). ''[http://www.mind.org.uk/Information/Booklets/Understanding/Understanding+borderline+personality+disorder.htm Understanding borderline personality disorder]''. London: Mind. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
 
Group-based psychological services encourage clients to socialize and participate in both solitary and group activities. These may be in day centers. [[Therapeutic communities]] are an example of this, particularly in Europe, although their usage has declined many have specialised in the treatment of severe personality disorder.<ref>Campling, P. (2001). "[http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/7/5/365 Therapeutic communities]". ''Advances in Psychiatric Treatment'' (7): 365-372. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>


[[Psychiatric rehabilitation]] services aimed at helping people with mental health problems, to reduce psychosocial disability, engage in meaningful activities, and avoid [[stigma]] and [[social exclusion]] may be of value to people who suffer from BPD. There are also many mutual-support or co-counseling groups run by and for individuals with BPD. A goal may be full [[psychosocial recovery|recovery]] rather than reliance on services.
The choice of treatment may depend on symptoms.<ref name="pmid21299173">{{cite journal| author=Goldman GA, Gregory RJ| title=Relationships between techniques and outcomes for borderline personality disorder. | journal=Am J Psychother | year= 2010 | volume= 64 | issue= 4 | pages= 359-71 | pmid=21299173 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/afap/ajp/2010/00000064/00000004/art00003 }} </ref>


Data indicate that substantial percentages of people diagnosed with BPD can achieve [[remission]] even within a year or two.<ref name=PToverview/> A longitudinal study found that, six years after being diagnosed with BPD, 56% showed good psychosocial functioning, compared to 26% at baseline. Although vocational achievement was more limited even compared to those with other personality disorders, those whose symptoms had remitted were significantly more likely to have a good relationship with a spouse/partner and at least one parent, good work/school performance, a sustained work/school history, good global functioning and good psychosocial functioning.<ref>Zanarini, M.C.; F.R. Frankenburg, J. Hennen, et al. (February 2005). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=15899718 Psychosocial functioning of borderline patients and axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for six years]". ''J Personal Disord'' '''19''' (1): 19-29. Retrieved on [[2007-09-23]].</ref>
[http://www.steppsforbpd.com/ Systems Training for Emotional Predictability and Problem Solving] (STEPPS) is a treatment for family members of patients and augmented [[psychotherapy]] in a [[randomized controlled trial]].<ref name="pmid18281407">{{cite journal| author=Blum N, St John D, Pfohl B, Stuart S, McCormick B, Allen J et al.| title=Systems Training for Emotional Predictability and Problem Solving (STEPPS) for outpatients with borderline personality disorder: a randomized controlled trial and 1-year follow-up. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 2008 | volume= 165 | issue= 4 | pages= 468-78 | pmid=18281407
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18281407 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07071079 }}  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18952969 Review in: Evid Based Ment Health. 2008 Nov;11(4):120] </ref>


==References==
==Prognosis==
{{Reflist|2}}
One half of patients achieve recovery<sup> </sup>(defined as remission<sup> </sup>of symptoms and having good social and vocational functioning<sup> </sup>for two years) according to a cohort study.<ref name="pmid20395399">{{cite journal| author=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Reich DB, Fitzmaurice G| title=Time to attainment of recovery from borderline personality disorder and stability of recovery: A 10-year prospective follow-up study. | journal=Am J Psychiatry | year= 2010 | volume= 167 | issue= 6 | pages= 663-7 | pmid=20395399
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20395399 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081130 }} </ref>


==See also==
==See also==
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*[[Psychology]]
*[[Psychology]]


[[Category:CZ Live]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
{{DSM personality disorders}}[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]

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Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is identified as a personality disorder characterized by emotional dysregulation, extreme "black and white" thinking, and chaotic relationships.[1] The general profile of the disorder also includes a pervasive instability of mood, poor self-image, issues of identity, and disturbance in the sense of self. In extreme cases, periods of dissociation can also be demonstrated. [2]

Borderline personality disorder falls within the B cluster of personality disorders, along with Antisocial personality disorder, Histrionic personality disorder, and Narcissistic personality disorder. [2]

Disturbances experienced by those diagnosed as exhibiting the symptom profile for Borderline personality disorder have a wide-ranging and pervasive negative impact on many facets of the person's life, including employment, relationships at work, family life, and other social relationships. Co-occurrence of substance abuse and mood disorders, as well as para-suicidal and suicidal behavior, is common.

Epidemiology

Figures on the prevalence of BPD in the general population vary, ranging from approximately 1% to 2%. [3] [4] The diagnosis appears to be more common in women than in men, by a ration of as much as 3:1 according to the DSM-IV-TR. [5] [6]

Sufferers of BPD are also disproportionately represented in prison populations, with 23 percent of incarcerated men and 20 percent of incarcerated women are diagnosed with BPD. [7]

Diagnostic criteria

Note: The American Psychiatric Association, which publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, forbids the unauthorized reproduction of their diagnostic criteria. A narrative of the DSM-IV-TR criteria follows. Diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the patient, as well as markers for the disorder observed by a psychiatrist, psychologist, or other qualified diagnostician through clinical assessment. This profile may be supported and/or corroborated by long term patterns of behavior as reported by family members, friends or co-workers. The list of criteria that must be met for diagnosis is outlined in the DSM-IV-TR.[2]

An initial assessment generally includes a comprehensive personal and family history, and may also include a physical examination by a physician. Although there are no physiological tests that confirm borderline personality disorder, medical tests may be employed to exclude any co-occurring medical conditions that may present with psychiatric symptoms. These include blood tests measuring TSH to exclude hypo- or hyperthyroidism, basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance, full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease, and serology to exclude syphilis or HIV infection; two commonly ordered investigations are EEG to exclude epilepsy, and a CT scan of the head to exclude brain lesions.

The World Health Organization's ICD-10 has a comparable diagnosis called Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder - Borderline type (F60.31). This requires, in addition to the general criteria for personality disorder: disturbances in and uncertainty about self-image, aims, and internal preferences (including sexual); liability to become involved in intense and unstable relationships, often leading to emotional crisis; excessive efforts to avoid abandonment; recurrent threats or acts of self-harm; and chronic feelings of emptiness.

The Chinese Society of Psychiatry's CCMD has a comparable diagnosis of Impulsive Personality Disorder. A patient diagnosed as having IPD must display "affective outbursts" and "marked impulsive behavior", plus at least three out of eight other symptoms. The construct has been described as a hybrid of the impulsive and borderline subtypes of the ICD's Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder, and also incorporates six of the nine DSM BPD criteria.[8]

Differential diagnosis

Borderline personality disorder often co-occurs with mood disorders. Some features of borderline personality disorder may overlap with those of mood disorders, complicating the differential diagnostic assessment.[9][10][11]

Both diagnoses involve symptoms commonly known as "mood swings". In bipolar disorder, the term refers to the cyclic episodes of elevated and depressed mood generally lasting weeks or months. In the rapid cycling variant of bipolar disorder there are more than four episodes in a year, but even then the swings are more sustained than in borderline personality disorder. In borderline personality, the mood swings may arise and/or subside suddenly and dramatically and last for seconds, minutes, hours or days.

Bipolar depression is generally more pervasive with sleep and appetite disturbances, as well as a marked nonreactivity of mood, whereas mood with respect to borderline personality and co-occurring dysthymia remains markedly reactive and sleep disturbance not acute.[12]

The relationship between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder has been debated. Some hold that the latter represents a subthreshold form of affective disorder,[13][14] while others maintain the distinctness between the disorders, noting they often co-occur.[15][16]

Co-morbid diagnoses

Co-morbid conditions in BPD are common. When comparing individuals diagnosed with BPD to those diagnosed with other kinds of personality disorders, the former showed a higher rate of also meeting criteria for:[17]

Substance abuse is a common problem in BPD, whether due to impulsivity or as a coping mechanism, and 50% to 70% of psychiatric inpatients with BPD have been found to meet criteria for a substance use disorder.[18]

The Borderline Profile

The term "borderline" first appeared in clinical use during the 1930s, originating with the idea posited by Otto Kernberg that some patients fell on the "borderline" between neurosis and psychosis. BPD became an official Axis II diagnosis in 1980 with the publication of the DSM-III. [3] It has been noted that there is probably no other mental disorder about which so many articles and books have been written, yet about which so little is known based on empirical research.[19]

Studies suggest that individuals with BPD tend to experience frequent, strong and long-lasting states of aversive tension, often triggered by perceived rejection, being alone, or perceived failure.[20] Individuals with BPD may show lability (changeability) between anger and anxiety or between depression and anxiety[21] and temperamental sensitivity to emotive stimuli.[22]

The negative emotional states particularly associated with BPD have been grouped into four categories: extreme feelings in general; feelings of destructiveness or self-destructiveness; feelings of fragmentation or lack of identity; and feelings of victimization.[23]

Individuals with BPD can be very sensitive to the way others treat them, reacting strongly to perceived criticism or hurtfulness. Their feelings about others often shift from positive to negative, generally after a disappointment or perceived threat of losing someone. Self-image can also change rapidly from extremely positive to extremely negative. Impulsive behaviors are common, including alcohol or drug abuse, unsafe sex, gambling, and recklessness in general.[24] Attachment studies suggest individuals with BPD, while being high in intimacy- or novelty-seeking, can be hyper-alert[19] to signs of rejection or not being valued and tend towards insecure, ambivalent, preoccupied or fearful attitudes towards relationships.[25] They tend to view the world generally as dangerous and malevolent, and themselves as powerless, vulnerable, unacceptable and unsure in self-identity.[19]

Individuals with BPD are often described, including by some mental health professionals (and in the DSM-IV), as deliberately manipulative or difficult, but analyses and findings generally trace behaviors to inner pain and turmoil, powerlessness and defensive reactions, or limited coping and communication skills.[26] [27] [28] There has been limited research on family members' understanding of borderline personality disorder and the extent of burden or negative emotion experienced or expressed by family members.[29] Parents of individuals with BPD have been reported to show co-existing extremes of over-involvement and under-involvement.[30] BPD has been linked to somewhat increased levels of chronic stress and conflict in romantic relationships, decreased satisfaction of romantic partners, abuse, and unwanted pregnancy; these links may largely be general to personality disorder and subsyndromal problems,[31] but such issues are commonly raised in support groups and published literature for partners of individuals with BPD.

Suicidal or self-harming behavior is one of the core diagnostic criteria in DSM IV-TR, and management of and recovery from this can be complex and challenging.[32] The suicide rate is approximately eight to ten percent.[33] The most recognized form of self-injury is automutilation (cutting the self), usually of the arms, but often other areas such as the legs, chest, belly, and face. Self-injury attempts are highly common among patients and may or may not be carried out with suicidal intent.[34][35] BPD is often characterized by multiple low lethality suicide attempts triggered by seemingly minor incidents, and less commonly by high lethality attempts that are attributed to impulsiveness or comorbid major depression, with interpersonal stressors appearing to be particularly common triggers.[36] Ongoing family interactions and associated vulnerabilities can lead to self-destructive behavior.[30] Stressful life events related to sexual abuse have been found to be a particular trigger for suicide attempts by adolescents with a BPD diagnosis.[37]

Etiology

BPD may result from a combination that can involve a traumatic childhood, a vulnerable temperament (possibly inherited), and stressful maturational events during adolescence or adulthood.[38][39]

An early theory, proposed by Otto Kernberg, is that Borderline Personality is based on a premise of failure to develop in childhood.[40] There are, according to Kernberg, 3 developmental tasks an individual must accomplish, and, when one fails to accomplish a certain developmental task, this often corresponds with an increased risk in developing certain psychopathologies. Failing the first developmental task of psychic clarification of self and other, can result in an increased risk to develop varieties of psychosis. Not accomplishing the second task, overcoming splitting, results in an increased risk to develop a borderline personality. [41]

More recentlly, a neurobehavioural theory proposes that emotional dysregulation, also called affective dysregulation, may be inherited and give a susceptibility to BPD.[1] This susceptibility may lead to manifesting BPD depending on adverse childhood experiences with the result resembling a chronic post-traumatic stress disorder[1].

Childhood abuse, trauma or neglect

Numerous studies have shown a strong correlation between childhood abuse and development of BPD.[42][43][44][45] Most (60%) patients with BPD self-report childhood sexual abuse[43], which is higher than the rate of 25% reported by adults from the general population[46]. Many individuals with BPD report having had a history of abuse, neglect, or separation as young children.[38] Patients with BPD have been found to be significantly more likely to report having been verbally, emotionally, physically, and sexually abused by caretakers of either gender. They were also much more likely to report having caretakers (of both genders) deny the validity of their thoughts and feelings. They were also reported to have failed to provide needed protection, and neglected their child's physical care. Parents (of both sexes) were typically reported to have withdrawn from the child emotionally, and to have treated the child inconsistently. Additionally, women with BPD who reported a previous history of neglect by a female caretaker and abuse by a male caretaker were consequently at significantly higher risk for being sexually abused by a noncaretaker (not a parent).[47]These are also the same risk factors for reactive attachment disorder and it has been suggested that children who experience chronic early maltreatment and Reactive Attachment Disorder go on to develop a variety of personality disorders, including Borderline Personality Disorder.[48] Many of these children are violent[49] and aggressive[50] and as adults are at risk of developing a variety of psychological problems[51] such as borderline personality disorder.[48]

According to Joel Paris,[52] "Some researchers, like Judith Herman, believe that BPD is a name given to a particular manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): in Trauma and Recovery, she theorizes that when PTSD takes a form that emphasizes heavily its elements of identity and relationship disturbance, it gets called BPD; when the somatic (body) elements are emphasized, it gets called hysteria, and when the dissociative/deformation of consciousness elements are the focus, it gets called DID/MPD" (dissociative identity disorder or multiple personality disorder).

Other developmental factors

Some studies suggest that BPD may not necessarily be a trauma-spectrum disorder and that it is biologically distinct from the post traumatic stress disorder that could be a precursor. The personality symptom clusters seem to be related to specific abuses, but they may be related to more persistent aspects of interpersonal and family environments in childhood.[53]

There is evidence for the central role of family in the development of BPD, including interactions that are negative and critical rather than supportive and empathic, with parental and family behaviors transacting with the child's own behaviors and emotional vulnerabilities.[54]

Some findings suggest that BPD may lie on a bipolar spectrum, with a number of points of phenomenological and biological overlap between the affective lability criterion of borderline personality disorder and the extremely rapid cycling bipolar disorders.[55][56] Some findings suggest that the DSM-IV BPD diagnosis mixes up two sets of unrelated items—an affective instability dimension related to Bipolar-II, and an impulsivity dimension not related to Bipolar-II.[57]

Genetics

An overview of the existing literature suggested that traits related to BPD are influenced by genes, and since personality is generally quite heritable then BPD should also be, but studies have had methodological problems and the links are not yet clear.[58] A major twin study found that if one identical twin met criteria for BPD, the other also met criteria in around a third (35%) of cases, whereas the concordance rate in dizygotic twin pairs was 7% in monozygotic, yielding an inheritance of 0.69.[59]

Twin, sibling and other family studies indicate a partially heritable basis for impulsive aggression, but studies of serotonin-related genes to date have suggested only modest contributions to behavior.[53]

Neurological considerations

Neurotransmitters implicated in BPD include serotonin, norepinephrine and acetylcholine (related to various emotions and moods); GABA, the brain's major inhibitory neurotransmitter (which can stabilize mood change); and glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter.

Enhanced amygdala activation in BPD has been identified as reflecting the intense and slowly subsiding emotions commonly observed in BPD in response to even low-level stressors. The activation of both the amygdala and prefrontal cortical areas can reflect attempts to control intensive emotions during the recall of unresolved life events.[60] Impulsivity or aggression, as sometimes seen in BPD, has been linked to alterations in serotonin function and specific brain regions in the cingulate and the medial and orbital prefrontal cortex.[53]

Treatment

Various psychotherapies for patients with BPD have been studied in randomized controlled trials including dialectical behavior therapy[61][62], mentalization based treatment[63][64], schema-focused therapy[65], Dynamic Deconstructive Psychotherapy (DDP)[66], and transference-focused psychotherapy[67]

The choice of treatment may depend on symptoms.[68]

Systems Training for Emotional Predictability and Problem Solving (STEPPS) is a treatment for family members of patients and augmented psychotherapy in a randomized controlled trial.[69]

Prognosis

One half of patients achieve recovery (defined as remission of symptoms and having good social and vocational functioning for two years) according to a cohort study.[70]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Lieb K, Zanarini MC, Schmahl C, Linehan MM, Bohus M (2004 Jul 31-Aug 6). "Borderline personality disorder.". Lancet 364 (9432): 453-61. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6. PMID 15288745. Research Blogging.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 (2004). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR (Text Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. ISBN 0890420246. DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR Borderline Personality Disorder criteria. BehaveNet.com.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Oldham, J. (July 2004). "Borderline Personality Disorder: An Overview" Psychiatric Times 'XXI' (8).
  4. ↑ Swartz, M.; D. Blazer, L. George, et al. (1990). "Estimating the prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the community". Journal of Personality Disorders '4' (3): 257-72.
  5. ↑ "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders". (2000). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association '4' Text Revision.
  6. ↑ Skodol, A.E.; D.S. Bender (2003). "Why are women diagnosed borderline more than men?" Psychiatr Q '74' (4): 349-60..
  7. ↑ Singleton, N.; H. Meltzer, R. Gatward with The Department of Health (1998-10-13). Psychiatric morbidity among prisoners in England and Wales. London: The Stationery Office. ISBN 0116210451.
  8. ↑ Zhong, J.; F. Leung (2007-01-05). "Should borderline personality disorder be included in the fourth edition of the Chinese classification of mental disorders?" Chin Med J (English) 120 (1): 77-82.
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  10. ↑ (2001). "Treatment of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder". APA Practice Guidelines. Retrieved on 2007-09-21.
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  16. ↑ Pope, H.G. Jr.; J.M. Jonas, J.I. Hudson, et al. (1983). "The validity of DSM-III borderline personality disorder: A phenomenologic, family history, treatment response, and long term follow up study". Arch Gen Psychiatry (40): 23-30.
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  18. ↑ Gregory, R. (2006). "Clinical Challenges in Co-occurring Borderline Personality and Substance Use Disorders". Psychiatric Times 'XXIII' (13).
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  22. ↑ Meyer, B.; M. Ajchenbrenner, D.P. Bowles (December 2005). "Sensory sensitivity, attachment experiences, and rejection responses among adults with borderline and avoidant features". J Personal Disord '19' (6): 641-58.
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  24. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2001). "Psychiatric Services". Psychiatr Serv (52): 1569-70.
  25. ↑ Levy, K.N.; K.B. Meehan, M. Weber, et al. (March – April 2005). "Attachment and borderline personality disorder: implications for psychotherapy". Psychopathology '38' (2): 64-74.
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  31. ↑ Daley, S.E.; D. Burge, C. Hammen (August 2000). "Borderline personality disorder symptoms as predictors of 4-year romantic relationship dysfunction in young women: addressing issues of specificity". J Abnorm Psychol '109' (3): 451-60.
  32. ↑ Hawton, K.; E. Townsend, E. Arensman, et al. (1999). "Cochrane Collaboration Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments for deliberate self harm". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4). Art. No.: CD001764. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001764.
  33. ↑ Borderline Personality Disorder Facts. BPD Today.
  34. ↑ Soloff, P.H.; J.A. Lis, T. Kelly, et al. (1994). "Self-mutilation and suicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder". Journal of Personality Disorders '8' (4): 257-67.
  35. ↑ Gardner, D.L.; R.W. Cowdry (1985). "Suicidal and parasuicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder". Psychiatric Clinics of North America '8' (2): 389-403.
  36. ↑ Brodsky, B.S.; S.A. Groves, M.A. Oquendo, et al. (June 2006). "Interpersonal precipitants and suicide attempts in borderline personality disorder". Suicide Life Threat Behav '36' (3): 313-22.
  37. ↑ Horesh, N.; J. Sever, A. Apter (July – August 2003). "A comparison of life events between suicidal adolescents with major depression and borderline personality disorder". Compr Psychiatry '44' (4): 277-83.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR (1997). "Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder.". J Pers Disord 11 (1): 93-104. PMID 9113824.
  39. ↑ Pally R (2002). "The neurobiology of borderline personality disorder: the synergy of "nature and nurture".". J Psychiatr Pract 8 (3): 133-42. PMID 15985870.
  40. ↑ Gunderson JG (2009). "Borderline personality disorder: ontogeny of a diagnosis.". Am J Psychiatry 166 (5): 530-9. DOI:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121825. PMID 19411380. Research Blogging.
  41. ↑ Kernberg, O. (2000). Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism. New York: Aronson. ISBN 0876687621.
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  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Zanarini MC, Williams AA, Lewis RE, Reich RB, Vera SC, Marino MF et al. (1997). "Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder.". Am J Psychiatry 154 (8): 1101-6. PMID 9247396.
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  45. ↑ Herman, Judith (1997). Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence--from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Basic Books. ISBN 0465087302.
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  49. ↑ Robins, L.N. (1978). "Longitudinal studies: Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behavior". Psychological Medicine (8): 611–22.
  50. ↑ Prino, C.T., & M. Peyrot (1994). "The effect of child physical abuse and neglect on aggressive withdrawn, and prosocial behavior". Child Abuse and Neglect (18): 871–84.
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Personality disorders
Cluster A (Odd): Schizotypal | Schizoid | Paranoid
Cluster B (Dramatic): Antisocial | Borderline | Histrionic | Narcissistic
Cluster C (Anxious): Dependent | Obsessive-Compulsive | Avoidant
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