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'''Ontario''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] province, the most populous and the second largest in area (after [[Quebec]]). Its southern boundary runs along the [[St. Lawrence River]] and through [[Lake Ontario]], the [[Niagara River]], and [[Lake Erie]]; here the province borders on the [[United States|American]] states of [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Ohio]].
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'''Ontario''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Provinces of Canada|province]], the most populous and the second largest in area (after [[Quebec]]). Its southern boundary runs along the [[St. Lawrence River]] and through [[Lake Ontario]], the [[Niagara River]], and [[Lake Erie]]; here the province borders on the [[United States of America|American]] states of [[New York (disambiguation)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania (U.S. state)|Pennsylvania]], and [[Ohio (U.S. state)|Ohio]].


Ontario's northern boundary lies in [[Hudson Bay]]; here it borders the territory of [[Nunavut]] and the provinces of [[Manitoba]] and [[Quebec]]. Its eastern boundary is a land and river border with Quebec.
Ontario's northern boundary lies in [[Hudson Bay]]; here it borders the territory of [[Nunavut]] and the provinces of [[Manitoba]] and [[Quebec]]. Its eastern boundary is a land and river border with Quebec.


The western boundary consists of a land border with the American state of [[Minnesota]] and of a marine border with Minnesota and [[Michigan]] which runs through Lakes [[Lake Superior|Superior]] and [[Lake Huron|Huron]] and their connecting waters.  
The western boundary consists of a land border with Manitoba and with the American state of [[Minnesota (U.S. state)|Minnesota]] and of a marine border with Minnesota and [[Michigan (U.S. state)|Michigan]]; this boundary runs through [[Lake]]s [[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]] and [[Lake St. Clair|St. Clair]], their connecting waters, and the southern portion of the [[Detroit River]].  


The capital city of Ontario is [[Toronto]], the largest city in Canada. [[Ottawa]], the capital of Canada, is also in Ontario. The 2006 Census reported 12,160,282 residents of Ontario, who constituted 38% of the national population.  
The capital [[city]] of Ontario is [[Toronto, Ontario]], the largest city in Canada. [[Ottawa]], the capital of Canada, is also in Ontario. The 2006 Census reported 12,160,282 residents of Ontario, who constituted 38% of the national population.  


The province is 1,076,395 km<SUP>2</SUP> in area, of which 917,741 km<SUP>2</SUP> are land.
The province is 1,076,395 km<SUP>2</SUP> in area, of which 917,741 km<SUP>2</SUP> are land.
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==Topography==
==Topography==


The province has three main geographical regions. In the north, the Hudson Bay Lowlands consist largely of [[muskeg]].  To the south of the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and occupying over half the area of the province, is the Ontario portion of the [[Canadian Shield]], a heavily forested area in which only a thin layer of soil covers bedrock. In the south is the arable Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Valley.
The province has three main geographical regions. In the north, the Hudson Bay Lowlands consist largely of [[muskeg]].  To the south of the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and occupying over half the area of the province, is the Ontario portion of the [[Canadian Shield]], a heavily [[forested|forest]] area in which only a thin layer of [[soil]] covers [[bedrock]]. In the south is the arable Great Lakes-St. Lawrence [[Valley]].


==History==
==History==


Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory which is now Ontario was occupied by Algonqians and Iroquoian. What is now Southern Ontario (the region bounded by [[Lake Ontario]], [[Lake Erie]], and [[Georgian Bay]]) was explored by [[Étienne Brûlé]] from 1610 to 1612, while [[Henry Hudson]] visited [[Hudson Bay]] and claimed the region for Great Britain in 1611. [[Samuel de Champlain]] visited Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries established outposts soon after. In 1730 the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] established an outpost at [[Moose Factory, Ontario|Moose Factory]], now the oldest English-speaking settlement in Ontario.  
Before the arrival of [[Europe|Europeans]], the territory which is now Ontario was occupied by [[Algonqians]] and [[Iroquoians]].
 
===New France===
See also [[New France]].
 
What is now Southern Ontario (the region bounded by [[Lake Ontario]], [[Lake Erie]], and [[Georgian Bay]]) was explored by [[Étienne Brûlé]] from 1610 to 1612 and claimed for [[New France]], while [[Henry Hudson]] visited [[Hudson Bay]] and claimed the region for [[England]] in 1611. [[Samuel de Champlain]] visited Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries established outposts soon after. In 1730 the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] established an outpost at [[Moose Factory, Ontario|Moose Factory]], now the oldest English-speaking settlement in Ontario.
 
===Province of Quebec===
See also [[History of Quebec]]
 
In 1763, Great Britain acquired what is now Southern Ontario and the shores of [[Lake Huron]] and [[Lake Superior]] through the [[Treaty of Paris]] as part of its acquisition of the French colony of [[New France]]. The British renamed [[New France]] the [[Quebec|Province of Quebec]]. In 1774, the [[Quebec Act]] expanded the boundaries of Quebec to include the [[Ohio Country]] and [[Illinois Country]], from the [[Appalachian Mountains]] on the east, south to the [[Ohio River]], west to the [[Mississippi River]] and north to the southern boundary of [[Rupert's Land]], the commercial territory of the Hudson's Bay Company.  In 1783 the United States took over all land south of the [[Great Lakes]], although a few British military posts were active until ended by the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1795.
 
In 1784, settlement of large numbers of [[United Empire Loyalists]] (Americans who had remained loyal to the British Crown) began. They settled mainly in [[Niagara Region|Niagara]] and along the St. Lawrence River. More Americans followed, attracted by cheap, arable land. Sentiment grew in the region favouring British institutions, especially English [[law]], and the use of English as an official [[language]].
 
===Upper Canada===
The [[Constitutional Act of 1791]] divided Quebec into [[Upper Canada]] (the part of present-day Ontario south of [[Lake Nipissing]] plus the current Ontario shoreline of [[Georgian Bay]] and Lake Superior) and [[Lower Canada]] (the southern part of present-day Quebec). Upper Canada used English law and English was its official language. Upper Canada's first capital was Newark (now [[Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario|Niagara-on-the-Lake]]); in 1796 it was moved to York, now Toronto.
 
Upper Canada was invaded during the [[War of 1812]] by the United States, which hoped to annex it. The Americans were repelled by British regular troops, Canadian militia, and [[First Nations]] allies, although they controlled Lakes Erie and Ontario for a considerable time.
 
Following the war, British and Irish immigration to Upper Canada increased, and economic development accelerated. At the same time, resentment grew of the power of the [[Family Compact]], a [[Tory]] clique which dominated the unelected executive council of advisers to the [[Governor-General]] while the unelected [[Legislative Assembly of Canada|legislative assembly]] had little power. As in the other British North American provinces, a [[Reform Party (Upper Canada)|Reform]] movement, eventually led by [[William Lyon Mackenzie]], arose. Disputation between Tories and Reformers was intense and sometimes violent; in 1826, for example, Tories threw the presses of Mackenzie's newspaper into Toronto Bay. In 1837, during a period of economic distress following a bad harvest, the [[Upper Canada Rebellion]] broke out. It was quickly suppressed, but the occurrence of a related rebellion in Lower Canada led the British to replace the governor-general with the [[John George Lambton, Earl of Durham|Earl of Durham]], whom they charged with reporting on the colonists' grievances.
 
Durham dropped charges against all rebels except [[Louis-Joseph Papineau]], Mackenzie, and a few other leaders. However, he exiled eight rebels who had already been convicted to [[Bermuda]], an act which exceeded his power (since he had no authority in Bermuda). When the British government declared he had no authority to do this, Durham resigned after only five months in power. However, he had already collected a great deal of information about the origins of the rebellions, and published a report in 1839.
 
Durham's report condemned [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] rule in both the Canadas, and observed that the rebellion in Lower Canada had been the result of conflict between French and English. Durham recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be re-united and given [[responsible government]] with control over local affairs. Union of Upper and Lower Canada was intended to eliminate the danger of a responsible government falling under French control, which Durham thought would promote reactionary ideas.
 
===Canada West===
The report consequently was opposed by French-Canadians and by Upper and Lower Canadian Tories. However, the British government, while rejecting proposals for responsible government in the Canadas, created the [[United Province of Canada]] in 1841. Upper Canada, now also known as [[Canada West]], was given as many seats in the legislative assembly as [[Canada East]], although it had far fewer people. This plan assured an [[anglophone]] majority in the Assembly, although it probably made Durham's proposed assimilation of the French impossible.
 
While unwilling to grant responsible government, the Colonial Office did allow the governor general to change the members of the executive council, which weakened the power of the Family Compact, which had developed as a result of appointing members for life. The British also made a large loan for public works. The movement for responsible government continued to grow, and in 1841 the governor-general, [[Sir Charles Bagot]] realized that to govern effectively he would have to admit French leaders to his executive council. Once admitted, Canada East Reformer [[Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine]] insisted that Canada West Reformer [[Robert Baldwin]] also be admitted. Baldwin had served in the council before, but his admission along with Lafontaine created a Reform bloc.
 
Beginning with the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] in 1846, Britain abandoned [[mercantilism|mercantilist]] restrictions on free trade within the [[British Empire|Empire]]. The abandonment of these restrictions also removed the justification for not granting responsible government to the colonies, since the interests of the trade system no longer had to be protected. In 1846 the Colonial Secretary, [[Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey|Lord Grey]], informed the governor of Novia Scotia that the [[British North America]]n governors were to select the ministers in their executive councils from the party holding a majority in the legislative assembly. In 1848, the new governor-general [[James Bruce, 8th Lord Elgin|Lord Elgin]], asked Lafontaine and Baldwin to form a government after the Reformers won a majority in that year's Canadian elections.
 
A further consequence of the abandonment of mercantilism was a Reciprocity Treaty with the United States, signed in 1854. It provided for free exchange of natural products between British north America and the United States, Canadian access to Lake Michigan, American access to the St. Lawrence, and access by each country to the other's fisheries. Trade between British North America and the United States increased, producing the Canadian Commercial Revolution of rapid commercial development. In Canada West, for example, an important lumber industry developed as a result of reciprocity.
 
In 1859 the province of Canada imposed a tariff on manufactured goods. When British manufacturers objected that the tariff violated the principle of free trade on which the British Empire was now based, Canada replied that the British had given the colonies power to decide their own trade policies, regardless of their effect on British interests. As commercial development increased, the British North American colonies became interested in promoting trade with each other to reduce their dependence on foreign trade.
 
As Canada West became more populous, discontent with the union with Canada East grew. Because Canada East and Canada West had the same number of seats in the Legislative Assembly, and because the members from Canada East voted as a bloc while the representatives from Canada West did not, Canada East received a disproportionately large share of government funding, and any government was essentially an alliance with two leaders, one English and one French. One of the consequences of this discontent was the Clear Grit movement in Canada West, which advocated American-style elective government and full democracy. They also called for a final secularization of the [[clergy reserve]]s, with the money realized from sale of the reserves used to fund public education.


In 1763, Great Britain acquired what is now Southern Ontario and the shores of [[Lake Huron]] and [[Lake Superior]] through the [[Treaty of Paris]] as part of its acquisition of the French colony of Canada. The British renamed Canada [[Quebec]]. In 1774, the [[Quebec Act]] expanded the boundaries of Quebec to include the [[Ohio Country]] and [[Illinois Country]], from the [[Appalachian Mountains]] on the east, south to the [[Ohio River]], west to the [[Mississippi River]] and north to the southern boundary of [[Rupert's Land]], the commercial territory of the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1783 the United States took over all land south of the Great Lakes, although a few British military posts were active until ended by the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1795.
In Canada East, a similar party, the Parti rouge, appeared, but had little success because of its [[anticlericalism]]. The main French party, the Bleus, allied with the English Conservatives, who had abandoned their opposition to French political power after they realized, along with the Bleus, that an alliance would make their interests dominant under responsible government. The alliance advocated French political power and English commercial expansion. It was also supported by Reformers in Canada West other than the Clear Grits. While the Clear Grits represented farming interests, the other Reformers represented business interests.


In 1784, settlement of large numbers of [[United Empire Loyalists]] (Americans who had remained loyal to the British Crown) began. they settled mainly in [[Niagara Region|Niagara]] and along the St. Lawrence River. More Americans followed, attracted by cheap, arable land. Sentiment grew in the region favouring British institutions, especially English law, and the use of English as an official language. The [[Constitutional Act of 1791]] divided Quebec into [[Upper Canada]] (the part of present-day Ontario south of Lake Nipissing plus the current Ontario shoreline of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior) and [[Lower Canada]] (the southern part of present-day Quebec). Upper Canada used English law and English was its official language. Upper Canada's first capital was Newark (now [[Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario|Niagara-on-the-Lake]]); in 1796 it was moved to York, now Toronto.
In 1854, this tripartite alliance, led by [[Georges-Étienne Cartier]], [[John A. Macdonald]], and [[Francis Hincks]], came to power as the Liberal-Conservative Party.


Upper Canada was invaded during the [[War of 1812]] by the United States, which hoped to annex it. They were repelled by British regular troops, Canadian militia, and [[First Nations]] allies, although they controlled Lakes Erie and Ontario for a considerable time.
===Province of Ontario===


==Government==
==Government==


The [[Legislative Assembly of Ontario]] is unicameral. One hundred and seven ridings (electoral districts) each elect a single member of the Assembly. The winner of the election in each riding is the candidate who receives the most votes, regardless of the percentage of the vote he or she receives. A member of the Assembly is usually designated an MPP (Member of Provincial Parliament), although MLA (Member of the Legislative Assembly) is occasionally used. The Legislative Assembly is also frequently called the provincial parliament.  
The [[Legislative Assembly of Ontario]] is [[unicameral]]. One hundred and seven [[Riding (Canada)|riding]]s (electoral districts) each elect a single member of the Assembly. The winner of the [[election]] in each riding is the candidate who receives the most votes, regardless of the percentage of the vote he or she receives. A member of the Assembly is usually designated an MPP (Member of Provincial Parliament), although MLA (Member of the Legislative Assembly) is occasionally used. The Legislative Assembly is also frequently called the provincial parliament.  


The leader of the party holding the most seats in the Legislative Assembly is officially the Premier and President of the Council (that is, of the Executive Council or cabinet), and is known as the premier. He or she may also be known as the prime minister of Ontario but, as in the other provinces, ''premier'' is preferred so that the premier will not be confused with the prime minister of Canada (in French, however, ''premier ministre'' is used both for provincial premiers and the federal prime minister).
The leader of the party holding the most seats in the Legislative Assembly is officially the [[Premier (Canada)|Premier]] and President of the Council (that is, of the Executive Council or cabinet), and is known as the premier. He or she may also be known as the prime minister of Ontario but, as in the other provinces, ''premier'' is preferred so that the premier will not be confused with the prime minister of Canada (in French, however, ''premier ministre'' is used both for provincial premiers and the federal prime minister).


Since 2003, general elections are to be held at least every four years. Before 2003 elections were called at the government's pleasure within five years of the previous election or when the government fell (was defeated on a money bill or a motion of no confidence). Unless the government falls before four years have elapsed, a general election is now held on the first Thursday in the fourth October following the previous general election, or on a date within a week of the first Thursday in October if the first Thursday in October is a day of religious or cultural observance which might interfere with citizens' ability to vote.
Since 2003, general elections are to be held at least every four years. Before 2003 elections were called at the government's pleasure within five years of the previous election or when the government fell (was defeated on a money bill or a motion of no confidence). Unless the government falls before four years have elapsed, a general election is now held on the first Thursday in the fourth October following the previous general election, or on a date within a week of the first Thursday in October if the first Thursday in October is a day of religious or cultural observance which might interfere with citizens' ability to vote. In the 2007 elections, a referendum proposing the intorductoon of a form of [[proportional representation]] was defeated.


The executive branch of government consists of the monarch and his or her representative in Ontario, the Lieutenant Governor. Provincial bills require Royal Assent to come into effect. Generally, the Lieutenant Governor, who is appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada]] on the advice of the federal prime minister, carries out the will of cabinet.
The executive branch of government consists of the monarch and his or her representative in Ontario, the [[Lieutenant Governor]]. Provincial bills require Royal Assent to come into effect. Generally, the Lieutenant Governor, who is appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada]] on the advice of the federal [[prime minister]], carries out the will of cabinet.


The legislative buildings are in [[Queen's Park (Toronto)|Queen's Park]] in Toronto.
The legislative buildings are in [[Queen's Park (Toronto)|Queen's Park]] in Toronto.


==Bibliography==
==Further reading==
* ''Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History: Proceedings of the Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History Symposium, April 14, 15, and 16, 2000.'' Ontario Historical Society, 2000. 343 pp. 
For a much more extensive list, see the Bibliography subpage
 
*  Baskerville, Peter A.  ''Sites of Power: A Concise History of Ontario.'' Oxford U. Press., 2005. 296 pp.  (first edition was ''Ontario: Image, Identity and Power,'' 2002). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=112191064889930 online review]
*  Baskerville, Peter A.  ''Sites of Power: A Concise History of Ontario.'' Oxford U. Press., 2005. 296 pp.  (first edition was ''Ontario: Image, Identity and Power,'' 2002). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=112191064889930 online review]
* Berton, Pierre.  ''Niagara: A History of the Falls.'' (1992). 
* Hall, Roger; Westfall, William; and MacDowell, Laurel Sefton, eds.  ''Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History.'' Dundurn Pr., 1988. 406 pp.   
* Hall, Roger; Westfall, William; and MacDowell, Laurel Sefton, eds.  ''Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History.'' Dundurn Pr., 1988. 406 pp.   
* McGowan, Mark George and Clarke, Brian P., eds.  ''Catholics at the "Gathering Place": Historical Essays on the Archdiocese of Toronto, 1841-1991.'' Canadian Catholic Historical Assoc.; Dundurn, 1993. 352 pp. 
* Halpern, Monda.  ''And on that Farm He Had a Wife: Ontario Farm Women and Feminism, 1900-1970.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2001. 234 pp.   
* McKillop, A. B.  ''Matters of Mind: The University in Ontario, 1791-1951.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 716 pp. 
* Mays, John Bentley.  ''Arrivals: Stories from the History of Ontario.'' Penguin Books Canada, 2002. 418 pp. 
* Noel, S. J. R.  ''Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Politics, 1791-1896.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1990. 
 
===Geography and environment===
* Brown, Ron,''Top 100 Unusual Things to See in Ontario'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.ca/Top-100-Unusual-Things-Ontario/dp/1550464752/ref=sr_1_35/702-9157274-1851200?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190772367&sr=1-35 excerpt and text search]
* Cruickshank, Tom, and John de Visser. ''Old Ontario Houses : Traditions in Local Architecture'' (2000)
* MacPherson, Allen. ''Ontario Provincial Parks Trail Guide'' (2005)briefly describes the 325 interpretive and hiking trails found in 86 operating Ontario Provincial Parks [http://www.amazon.ca/gp/reader/1550464477/ref=sib_dp_pt/702-9157274-1851200#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Rawlings-Way, Charles,  and Natalie Karneef.''Toronto'' (2007) 
 
===Ontario to 1869===
*  Careless, J. M. S. ''Brown of the Globe'' (2 vols, Toronto, 1959-63), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=16321334 vol 1: ''The Voice of Upper Canada 1818-1859'']; vol 2: The Statesman of Confederation 1860-1880.
* Clarke, John. ''Land Power and Economics on the Frontier of Upper Canada'' McGill-Queen's University Press (2001) 747pp.
* Cohen, Marjorie Griffin.  ''Women's Work, Markets, and Economic Development in Nineteenth-Century Ontario.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1988. 258 pp.   
*Craig, Gerald M ''Upper Canada: the formative years 1784-1841'' McClelland and Stewart, 1963, the standard history [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369212 online edition]
* Dunham, Eileen ''Political unrest in Upper Canada 1815-1836'' McClelland and Stewart, 1963.
* Errington, Jane ''The Lion, the Eagle, and Upper Canada: A Developing Colonial Ideology'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987.
* Forkey, Neil. ''Shaping the Upper Canadian Frontier: Environment, Society and Culture in the Trent Valley'' (2003) 
* Gidney, R. D. and Millar, W. P. J.  ''Professional Gentlemen: The Professions in Nineteenth-Century Ontario.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 
* Grabb, Edward, James Curtis, Douglas Baer; "Defining Moments and Recurring Myths: Comparing Canadians and Americans after the American Revolution" ''The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology,'' Vol. 37, 2000
* Johnson, J. K. and Wilson, Bruce G., eds.  ''Historical Essays on Upper Canada: New Perspectives.'' Carleton U. Press, (1975). . 604 pp.  
* Johnson, J. K. and Wilson, Bruce G., eds.  ''Historical Essays on Upper Canada: New Perspectives.'' Carleton U. Press, (1975). . 604 pp.  
* Keane, David and Read, Colin, ed.  ''Old Ontario: Essays in Honour of J. M. S. Careless.'' Toronto: Dundurn, 1990. 
* Kilbourn, William.; ''The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada'' (1956) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99227317 online edition]  
* Kilbourn, William.; ''The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada'' (1956) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99227317 online edition]  
* Knowles, Norman.  ''Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1997. 244 pp. 
* Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. ''Province of Ontario: A History'' (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
* Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. ''Province of Ontario: A History'' (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
* Lewis, Frank and Urquhart, M.C. ''Growth and standard of living in a pioneer economy: Upper Canada 1826-1851'' Institute for Economic Research, Queen's University, 1997.
* Mays, John Bentley.  ''Arrivals: Stories from the History of Ontario.'' Penguin Books Canada, 2002. 418 pp.   
* McCalla, Douglas ''Planting the province: the economic history of Upper Canada 1784-1870'' University of Toronto Press, 1993.
* McGowan, Mark G.  ''Michael Power: The Struggle to Build the Catholic Church on the Canadian Frontier.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2005. 382 pp. 
* McNairn, Jeffrey L ''The capacity to judge: public opinion and deliberative democracy in Upper Canada 1791-1854'' University of Toronto Press, 2000.
* Oliver, Peter.  ''"Terror to Evil-Doers": Prisons and Punishments in Nineteenth-Century Ontario.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1998. 575 pp.  post 1835
* Rea, J. Edgar.  "Rebellion in Upper Canada, 1837" ''Manitoba Historical Society Transactions'' Series 3, Number 22, 1965-66, historiography [http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/transactions/3/rebellion1837.shtml  online edition]
* Reid, Richard M.  ''The Upper Ottawa Valley to 1855.'' Champlain Soc., 1990. 354 pp. 
* Rogers, Edward S. and Smith, Donald B., eds.  ''Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations.'' Dundurn, 1994. 448 pp. 
* Styran, Roberta M. and Taylor, Robert R., ed.  ''The "Great Swivel Link": Canada's Welland Canal.'' Champlain Soc., 2001. 494 pp. 
* Westfall, William.  ''Two Worlds: The Protestant Culture of Nineteenth-Century Ontario.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1989. 265 pp. 
* Wilton, Carol. ''Popular Politics and Political Culture in Upper Canada, 1800-1850.'' McGill-Queen's University Press, (2000). 311pp
 
===Ontario since 1869===
* Abel, Kerry M.''Changing Places: History, Community, and Identity in Northeastern Ontario'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.ca/Changing-Places-Community-Identity-Northeastern/dp/0773530711/ref=sr_1_48/702-9157274-1851200?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190772477&sr=1-48 excerpt and text search]
* Azoulay, Dan.  ''Keeping the Dream Alive: The Survival of the Ontario CCF/NDP, 1950-1963.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1997. 307 pp. 
* Cameron, David R. and White, Graham.  ''Cycling into Saigon: The Conservative Transition in Ontario.'' U. of British Columbia Press, 2000. 224 pp. Analysis of the 1995 transition from New Democratic Party (NDP) to Progressive Conservative (PC) rule in Ontario
* Comacchio, Cynthia R.  ''Nations Are Built of Babies: Saving Ontario's Mothers and Children, 1900-1940.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1993. 390 pp. 
*  Cook, Sharon Anne.  ''"Through Sunshine and Shadow": The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Evangelicalism, and Reform in Ontario, 1874-1930.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1995. 281 pp.
* Darroch, Gordon and Soltow, Lee.  ''Property and Inequality in Victorian Ontario: Structural Patterns and Cultural Communities in the 1871 Census.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 280 pp.
* Devlin, John F.  "A Catalytic State? Agricultural Policy in Ontario, 1791-2001."  PhD dissertation U. of Guelph 2004. 270 pp.  DAI 2005 65(10): 3972-A. DANQ94970  Fulltext: in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
* Evans, A. Margaret.  ''Sir Oliver Mowat.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1992. 438 pp.  Premier 1872-1896
* Fleming, Keith R.  ''Power at Cost: Ontario Hydro and Rural Electrification, 1911-1958.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1992. 326 pp. 
* Gidney, R. D.  ''From Hope to Harris: The Reshaping of Ontario's Schools.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1999. 362 pp.  deals with debates and changes in education from 1950 to 2000
* Gidney, R. D. and Millar, W. P. J.  ''Inventing Secondary Education: The Rise of the High School in Nineteenth-Century Ontario.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 440 pp. 
* Halpern, Monda.  ''And on that Farm He Had a Wife: Ontario Farm Women and Feminism, 1900-1970.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2001. 234 pp. 
* Hines, Henry G.  ''East of Adelaide: Photographs of Commercial, Industrial and Working-Class Urban Ontario, 1905-1930.'' London Regional Art and History Museum, 1989. 
* Hodgetts, J. E.  ''From Arm's Length to Hands-On: The Formative Years of Ontario's Public Service, 1867-1940.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1995. 296 pp. 
* Houston, Susan E. and Prentice, Alison.  ''Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1988. 418 pp.
*  Ibbitson, John.  ''Promised Land: Inside the Mike Harris Revolution.'' Prentice-Hall, 1997. 294 pp. praise for Conservatives
* Kechnie, Margaret C.  ''Organizing Rural Women: the Federated Women's Institutes of Ontario, 1897-1910.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2003. 194 pp. 
* Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. ''Province of Ontario: A History'' (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
*  Marks, Lynne.  ''Revivals and Roller Rinks: Religion, Leisure and Identity in Late Nineteenth-Century Small-Town Ontario.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1996. 330 pp.   
*  Montigny, Edgar-Andre, and Lori Chambers, eds. ''Ontario since Confederation: A Reader'' (University of Toronto Press, 2000).  
*  Montigny, Edgar-Andre, and Lori Chambers, eds. ''Ontario since Confederation: A Reader'' (University of Toronto Press, 2000).  
* Moss, Mark.  ''Manliness and Militarism: Educating Young Boys in Ontario for War.'' Oxford U. Press, 2001. 216 pp. 
* Noel, S. J. R.  ''Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Politics, 1791-1896.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1990.   
* Neatby, H. Blair and McEown, Don.  ''Creating Carleton: The Shaping of a University.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2002. 240 pp.   
* Nelles, H.V. ''Politics of Development: Forests, Mines, and Hydro-Electric Power in Ontario, 1849 1941'' (2005)
* Ontario Bureau of Statistics and Research. ''A Conspectus of the Province of Ontario'' (1947) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99258086 online edition]
* Ontario Bureau of Statistics and Research. ''A Conspectus of the Province of Ontario'' (1947) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99258086 online edition]
* Parr, Joy, ed.  ''A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1996. 335 pp.   
* Parr, Joy, ed.  ''A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1996. 335 pp.   
* Ralph, Diana; Régimbald, André; and St-Amand, Nérée, eds. ''Open for Business, Closed for People: Mike Harris's Ontario.'' Fernwood, 1997. 207 pp.  leftwing attack on Conservative party of 1990s
* Rawlings-Way, Charles,  and Natalie Karneef.''Toronto'' (2007)  
* Roberts, David.  ''In the Shadow of Detroit: Gordon M. McGregor, Ford of Canada, and Motoropolis.'' Wayne State U. Press, 2006. 320 pp.  
* Rogers, Edward S. and Smith, Donald B., eds.  ''Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations.'' Dundurn, 1994. 448 pp.   
* Santink, Joy L. ''Timothy Eaton and the Rise of His Department Store.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1990. 319 pp.
* Saywell, John T.  ''"Just Call Me Mitch": The Life of Mitchell F. Hepburn.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1991. 637 pp.  Biography of Liberal premier 1934-1942
* Schryer, Frans J.  ''The Netherlandic Presence in Ontario: Pillars, Class and Dutch Ethnicity.'' Wilfrid Laurier U. Press, 1998. 458 pp. focus is post WW2
* Schull, Joseph. ''Ontario since 1867'' (1978), narrative history
* Schull, Joseph. ''Ontario since 1867'' (1978), narrative history
* Stagni, Pellegrino.  ''The View from Rome: Archbishop Stagni's 1915 Reports on the Ontario Bilingual Schools Question.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2002. 134 pp. 
* Warecki, George M.  ''Protecting Ontario's Wilderness: A History of Changing Ideas and Preservation Politics, 1927-1973.' Lang, 2000. 334 pp. 
* White, Graham, ed.  ''The Government and Politics of Ontario.'' 5th ed. U. of Toronto Press, 1997. 458 pp.   
* White, Graham, ed.  ''The Government and Politics of Ontario.'' 5th ed. U. of Toronto Press, 1997. 458 pp.   
* White, Randall.  ''Ontario since 1985.'' Eastendbooks, 1998. 320 pp.   
* White, Randall.  ''Ontario since 1985.'' Eastendbooks, 1998. 320 pp.   
* Wilson, Barbara M. ed. ''Ontario and the First World War, 1914-1918: A Collection of Documents'' (Champlain Society, 1977)


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Ontario is a Canadian province, the most populous and the second largest in area (after Quebec). Its southern boundary runs along the St. Lawrence River and through Lake Ontario, the Niagara River, and Lake Erie; here the province borders on the American states of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.

Ontario's northern boundary lies in Hudson Bay; here it borders the territory of Nunavut and the provinces of Manitoba and Quebec. Its eastern boundary is a land and river border with Quebec.

The western boundary consists of a land border with Manitoba and with the American state of Minnesota and of a marine border with Minnesota and Michigan; this boundary runs through Lakes Superior, Huron and St. Clair, their connecting waters, and the southern portion of the Detroit River.

The capital city of Ontario is Toronto, Ontario, the largest city in Canada. Ottawa, the capital of Canada, is also in Ontario. The 2006 Census reported 12,160,282 residents of Ontario, who constituted 38% of the national population.

The province is 1,076,395 km2 in area, of which 917,741 km2 are land.

Topography

The province has three main geographical regions. In the north, the Hudson Bay Lowlands consist largely of muskeg. To the south of the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and occupying over half the area of the province, is the Ontario portion of the Canadian Shield, a heavily forest area in which only a thin layer of soil covers bedrock. In the south is the arable Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Valley.

History

Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory which is now Ontario was occupied by Algonqians and Iroquoians.

New France

See also New France.

What is now Southern Ontario (the region bounded by Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Georgian Bay) was explored by Étienne Brûlé from 1610 to 1612 and claimed for New France, while Henry Hudson visited Hudson Bay and claimed the region for England in 1611. Samuel de Champlain visited Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries established outposts soon after. In 1730 the Hudson's Bay Company established an outpost at Moose Factory, now the oldest English-speaking settlement in Ontario.

Province of Quebec

See also History of Quebec

In 1763, Great Britain acquired what is now Southern Ontario and the shores of Lake Huron and Lake Superior through the Treaty of Paris as part of its acquisition of the French colony of New France. The British renamed New France the Province of Quebec. In 1774, the Quebec Act expanded the boundaries of Quebec to include the Ohio Country and Illinois Country, from the Appalachian Mountains on the east, south to the Ohio River, west to the Mississippi River and north to the southern boundary of Rupert's Land, the commercial territory of the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1783 the United States took over all land south of the Great Lakes, although a few British military posts were active until ended by the Jay Treaty of 1795.

In 1784, settlement of large numbers of United Empire Loyalists (Americans who had remained loyal to the British Crown) began. They settled mainly in Niagara and along the St. Lawrence River. More Americans followed, attracted by cheap, arable land. Sentiment grew in the region favouring British institutions, especially English law, and the use of English as an official language.

Upper Canada

The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided Quebec into Upper Canada (the part of present-day Ontario south of Lake Nipissing plus the current Ontario shoreline of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior) and Lower Canada (the southern part of present-day Quebec). Upper Canada used English law and English was its official language. Upper Canada's first capital was Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake); in 1796 it was moved to York, now Toronto.

Upper Canada was invaded during the War of 1812 by the United States, which hoped to annex it. The Americans were repelled by British regular troops, Canadian militia, and First Nations allies, although they controlled Lakes Erie and Ontario for a considerable time.

Following the war, British and Irish immigration to Upper Canada increased, and economic development accelerated. At the same time, resentment grew of the power of the Family Compact, a Tory clique which dominated the unelected executive council of advisers to the Governor-General while the unelected legislative assembly had little power. As in the other British North American provinces, a Reform movement, eventually led by William Lyon Mackenzie, arose. Disputation between Tories and Reformers was intense and sometimes violent; in 1826, for example, Tories threw the presses of Mackenzie's newspaper into Toronto Bay. In 1837, during a period of economic distress following a bad harvest, the Upper Canada Rebellion broke out. It was quickly suppressed, but the occurrence of a related rebellion in Lower Canada led the British to replace the governor-general with the Earl of Durham, whom they charged with reporting on the colonists' grievances.

Durham dropped charges against all rebels except Louis-Joseph Papineau, Mackenzie, and a few other leaders. However, he exiled eight rebels who had already been convicted to Bermuda, an act which exceeded his power (since he had no authority in Bermuda). When the British government declared he had no authority to do this, Durham resigned after only five months in power. However, he had already collected a great deal of information about the origins of the rebellions, and published a report in 1839.

Durham's report condemned oligarchic rule in both the Canadas, and observed that the rebellion in Lower Canada had been the result of conflict between French and English. Durham recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be re-united and given responsible government with control over local affairs. Union of Upper and Lower Canada was intended to eliminate the danger of a responsible government falling under French control, which Durham thought would promote reactionary ideas.

Canada West

The report consequently was opposed by French-Canadians and by Upper and Lower Canadian Tories. However, the British government, while rejecting proposals for responsible government in the Canadas, created the United Province of Canada in 1841. Upper Canada, now also known as Canada West, was given as many seats in the legislative assembly as Canada East, although it had far fewer people. This plan assured an anglophone majority in the Assembly, although it probably made Durham's proposed assimilation of the French impossible.

While unwilling to grant responsible government, the Colonial Office did allow the governor general to change the members of the executive council, which weakened the power of the Family Compact, which had developed as a result of appointing members for life. The British also made a large loan for public works. The movement for responsible government continued to grow, and in 1841 the governor-general, Sir Charles Bagot realized that to govern effectively he would have to admit French leaders to his executive council. Once admitted, Canada East Reformer Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine insisted that Canada West Reformer Robert Baldwin also be admitted. Baldwin had served in the council before, but his admission along with Lafontaine created a Reform bloc.

Beginning with the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, Britain abandoned mercantilist restrictions on free trade within the Empire. The abandonment of these restrictions also removed the justification for not granting responsible government to the colonies, since the interests of the trade system no longer had to be protected. In 1846 the Colonial Secretary, Lord Grey, informed the governor of Novia Scotia that the British North American governors were to select the ministers in their executive councils from the party holding a majority in the legislative assembly. In 1848, the new governor-general Lord Elgin, asked Lafontaine and Baldwin to form a government after the Reformers won a majority in that year's Canadian elections.

A further consequence of the abandonment of mercantilism was a Reciprocity Treaty with the United States, signed in 1854. It provided for free exchange of natural products between British north America and the United States, Canadian access to Lake Michigan, American access to the St. Lawrence, and access by each country to the other's fisheries. Trade between British North America and the United States increased, producing the Canadian Commercial Revolution of rapid commercial development. In Canada West, for example, an important lumber industry developed as a result of reciprocity.

In 1859 the province of Canada imposed a tariff on manufactured goods. When British manufacturers objected that the tariff violated the principle of free trade on which the British Empire was now based, Canada replied that the British had given the colonies power to decide their own trade policies, regardless of their effect on British interests. As commercial development increased, the British North American colonies became interested in promoting trade with each other to reduce their dependence on foreign trade.

As Canada West became more populous, discontent with the union with Canada East grew. Because Canada East and Canada West had the same number of seats in the Legislative Assembly, and because the members from Canada East voted as a bloc while the representatives from Canada West did not, Canada East received a disproportionately large share of government funding, and any government was essentially an alliance with two leaders, one English and one French. One of the consequences of this discontent was the Clear Grit movement in Canada West, which advocated American-style elective government and full democracy. They also called for a final secularization of the clergy reserves, with the money realized from sale of the reserves used to fund public education.

In Canada East, a similar party, the Parti rouge, appeared, but had little success because of its anticlericalism. The main French party, the Bleus, allied with the English Conservatives, who had abandoned their opposition to French political power after they realized, along with the Bleus, that an alliance would make their interests dominant under responsible government. The alliance advocated French political power and English commercial expansion. It was also supported by Reformers in Canada West other than the Clear Grits. While the Clear Grits represented farming interests, the other Reformers represented business interests.

In 1854, this tripartite alliance, led by Georges-Étienne Cartier, John A. Macdonald, and Francis Hincks, came to power as the Liberal-Conservative Party.

Province of Ontario

Government

The Legislative Assembly of Ontario is unicameral. One hundred and seven ridings (electoral districts) each elect a single member of the Assembly. The winner of the election in each riding is the candidate who receives the most votes, regardless of the percentage of the vote he or she receives. A member of the Assembly is usually designated an MPP (Member of Provincial Parliament), although MLA (Member of the Legislative Assembly) is occasionally used. The Legislative Assembly is also frequently called the provincial parliament.

The leader of the party holding the most seats in the Legislative Assembly is officially the Premier and President of the Council (that is, of the Executive Council or cabinet), and is known as the premier. He or she may also be known as the prime minister of Ontario but, as in the other provinces, premier is preferred so that the premier will not be confused with the prime minister of Canada (in French, however, premier ministre is used both for provincial premiers and the federal prime minister).

Since 2003, general elections are to be held at least every four years. Before 2003 elections were called at the government's pleasure within five years of the previous election or when the government fell (was defeated on a money bill or a motion of no confidence). Unless the government falls before four years have elapsed, a general election is now held on the first Thursday in the fourth October following the previous general election, or on a date within a week of the first Thursday in October if the first Thursday in October is a day of religious or cultural observance which might interfere with citizens' ability to vote. In the 2007 elections, a referendum proposing the intorductoon of a form of proportional representation was defeated.

The executive branch of government consists of the monarch and his or her representative in Ontario, the Lieutenant Governor. Provincial bills require Royal Assent to come into effect. Generally, the Lieutenant Governor, who is appointed by the Governor General of Canada on the advice of the federal prime minister, carries out the will of cabinet.

The legislative buildings are in Queen's Park in Toronto.

Further reading

For a much more extensive list, see the Bibliography subpage

  • Baskerville, Peter A. Sites of Power: A Concise History of Ontario. Oxford U. Press., 2005. 296 pp. (first edition was Ontario: Image, Identity and Power, 2002). online review
  • Hall, Roger; Westfall, William; and MacDowell, Laurel Sefton, eds. Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History. Dundurn Pr., 1988. 406 pp.
  • Halpern, Monda. And on that Farm He Had a Wife: Ontario Farm Women and Feminism, 1900-1970. McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2001. 234 pp.
  • Johnson, J. K. and Wilson, Bruce G., eds. Historical Essays on Upper Canada: New Perspectives. Carleton U. Press, (1975). . 604 pp.
  • Kilbourn, William.; The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada (1956) online edition
  • Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. Province of Ontario: A History (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
  • Mays, John Bentley. Arrivals: Stories from the History of Ontario. Penguin Books Canada, 2002. 418 pp.
  • Montigny, Edgar-Andre, and Lori Chambers, eds. Ontario since Confederation: A Reader (University of Toronto Press, 2000).
  • Noel, S. J. R. Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Politics, 1791-1896. U. of Toronto Press, 1990.
  • Ontario Bureau of Statistics and Research. A Conspectus of the Province of Ontario (1947) online edition
  • Parr, Joy, ed. A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980. U. of Toronto Press, 1996. 335 pp.
  • Rawlings-Way, Charles, and Natalie Karneef.Toronto (2007)
  • Rogers, Edward S. and Smith, Donald B., eds. Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations. Dundurn, 1994. 448 pp.
  • Schull, Joseph. Ontario since 1867 (1978), narrative history
  • White, Graham, ed. The Government and Politics of Ontario. 5th ed. U. of Toronto Press, 1997. 458 pp.
  • White, Randall. Ontario since 1985. Eastendbooks, 1998. 320 pp.
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