Orthography of Irish: Difference between revisions

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'''[[Irish language|Irish]] [[orthography]]''' has evolved over many centuries, since [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] was first written down in the [[Latin alphabet]] in about the [[sixth century]] AD. Prior to that, [[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]] was written in [[Ogham]]. Irish spelling is mainly based on etymological considerations, very much like [[orthography of English|English orthography]], although a [[spelling reform]] in the mid-[[twentieth century]] simplified the relationship between spelling and pronunciation somewhat.
[[Image:Irish script.gif|thumb|right|330px| A sample of Irish script.{{PD-image}}]]
 
The '''[[orthography]] of [[Irish language|Irish]]''' refers to the set of rules and [[grapheme]]-[[phoneme]] (sound-[[letter (alphabet)|letter]]) correspondences used to [[written language|write]] this [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]]. Irish today is written in a modified [[Latin alphabet]], but the earliest writings originating in [[Ireland]], of [[Primitive Irish]], are in the [[Ogam script]], developed around the fourth to fifth centuries). From around the seventh century, [[Old Irish]] began to be written in an insular [[Latin language|Latin]] script, which retained some Ogam features.<ref>Russell (2005: 414-420).</ref>
There are three [[dialect]]s of spoken Irish: [[Ulster Irish|Ulster]] (now predominantly in [[County Donegal]]), [[Connacht Irish|Connacht]] (Counties [[County Mayo|Mayo]] and [[County Galway|Galway]]), and [[Munster Irish|Munster]] (Counties [[County Kerry|Kerry]], [[County Cork|Cork]], and [[County Waterford|Waterford]]). Some spelling conventions are common to all the dialects, while others vary from dialect to dialect. In addition, individual words may have in any given dialect a [[pronunciation]] that is not reflected by the spelling (rather like the English word ''colonel'', whose spelling denotes its pronunciation quite poorly).
 
==Alphabet==
[[Image:Irish script.gif|thumb|right|330px| A sample of [[Gaelic script]].{{PD-image}}]]
Prior to the twentieth century, Irish was usually written using the [[uncial]] [[Gaelic script]]. The uncial [[alphabet]], together with letter name pronunciations and [[Irish initial mutations|lenited]] [[letter (alphabet) letter]]s, is shown below.
 
Use of the uncial script is today almost entirely restricted to decorative and/or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above the lenited letter is usually substituted with a following ''h'' in the standard Roman alphabet. The only other use of ''h'' Irish is for [[vowel]]-initial words after certain [[clitic|proclitics]] (e.g. ''go '''h'''Éireann'' 'to Ireland) and for words of foreign derivation such as ''hata'' 'hat'.
 
The alphabet now used for writing the Irish language consists of the following letters, written in [[antiqua]]:
 
:'''a á b c d e é f g h i í l m n o ó p r s t u ú''';
 
Modern [[loanword]]s also make use of '''j k q v w x y z'''. Of these, '''j''' and '''v''' are the most common. The letters' names are spelt out thus:
:'''á bé cé dé é eif gé héis í eil eim ein ó pé ear eas té ú'''
:along with '''jé cá cú vé wae eacs yé zae'''.
 
Tree names were once popularly used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of the [[Ogham]] letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest Ogham letters were named after trees:
 
:'''ailm''' ('white fir'), '''beith''' ('birch'), '''coll''' ('hazel'), '''dair''' ('oak'), '''edad/eabhadh''' ('poplar'), '''fern/fearn''' ('alder'), '''gath/gort''' ('ivy'), '''uath''' ('hawthorn'), '''idad/íodhadh''' ('yew'), '''luis''' ('rowan'), '''muin''' ('vine'), '''nin/nion''' ('ash'), '''onn''' ('gorse'), '''peith''' ('dwarf alder'), '''ruis''' ('holander'), '''sail''' ('willow'), '''tinne/teithne''' ('holly'), '''úr''' ('heather')
 
Although the uncial script remained common until the mid-twentieth century, efforts to introduce antiqua began much earlier. [[Theobald Stapleton]]'s 1639 catechism was printed in antiqua, and also introduced simplified spellings such as ''suí'' for ''suidhe'' and ''uafás'' for ''uathbhás'', though these did not become standard for another 300 years.
 
==Consonants==
The consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant [[phoneme]]s as shown in this table.<ref>See [[Phonology of Irish]] for an explanation of the symbols used.</ref> In most cases, consonants are 'broad' ([[velarization|velarised]]) when the nearest vowel letter is one of '''a, o, u''' and 'slender' ([[palatalization|palatalised]]) when the nearest vowel letter is one of '''e, i'''.
 
{| class='wikitable'
! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme(s)
! Examples 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''b'''
| broad
| /bˠ/
| bain /bˠanʲ/ 'take' (imper.), scuab /sˠkuəbˠ/ 'broom'
|-
| slender
| /bʲ/
| béal /bʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth', cnáib /kn̪ˠaːbʲ/ 'hemp'
|-
| rowspan=3 |  '''bh'''
| broad
| /w/
| bhain /wanʲ/ 'took', ábhar /ˈaːwəɾˠ/ 'material', Bhairbre /ˈwaɾʲəbʲɾʲə/ 'Barbara' (genitive), tábhachtach /ˈt̪ˠaːwəxtəx/ 'important', dubhaigh /ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/ 'blacken' (imper.), scríobh /ʃcrʲiːw/ 'wrote', taobh /t̪ˠiːw/ 'side', dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ 'black', gabh /gaw/ 'get' (imper.) 
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/ 
| bhéal /vʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth' (lenited), cuibhreann /ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ 'common table', aibhneacha /ˈavʲnʲəxə/ 'rivers', sibh /ʃɪvʲ/ 'you' (pl.)
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''abh, eabh, obh''' 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''bhf'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''f-''')</small>
| broad
| /w/
| bhfuinneog /ˈwɪnʲoːg/ 'window' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/
| bhfíon /vʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'wine' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''bp'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''p-''')</small>
| broad
| /bˠ/
| bpoll /bˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /bʲ/
| bpríosún /ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''c'''
| broad
| /k/
| cáis /kaːʃ/ 'cheese', mac /mˠak/ 'son'
|-
| slender
| /c/
| ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ 'question', mic /mʲɪc/ 'sons'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| broad<br /><small>(Always broad before '''t'''.)</small>
| /x/
| cháis /xaːʃ/ 'cheese' (lenited), taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ 'chieftain' (also the term for the [[Taoiseach|Prime Minister of Ireland]]), boichte /bˠɔxtʲə/ 'poorer' 
|-
| slender
| /ç/<br />/h/ between vowels 
| cheist /çɛʃtʲ/ 'question' (lenited), deich /dʲɛç/ 'ten'<br />oíche /ˈiːhə/ 'night'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''d'''
| broad
| /d̪ˠ/
| dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist', nead /nʲad̪ˠ/ 'nest'
|-
| slender
| /dʲ/
| dearg /dʲaɾˠəg/ 'red', cuid /kɪdʲ/ 'part'
|-
| rowspan='3' | '''dh'''
| broad
| /ɣ/ word-initially<br />Silent after a [[vowel length|long vowel]]
| dhorn /ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist' (lenited)<br />ádh /aː/ 'luck'
|-
| slender
| /j/ 
| dhearg /ˈjaɾˠəg/ 'red' (lenited), fáidh /fˠaːj/ 'prophet' 
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''adh, aidh, eadh, eidh, idh, oidh, odh'''. See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-dh''' at the end of verbs. 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''dt'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''t-''')</small>
| broad
| /d̪ˠ/
| dtaisce /ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/ 'treasure' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /dʲ/
| dtír /dʲiːɾʲ/ 'country' (eclipsed)
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''f'''
| broad
| /fˠ/
| fós /fˠoːsˠ/ 'still', graf /gɾˠafˠ/ 'graph'
|-
| slender
| /fʲ/
| fíon /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'wine', stuif /sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/ 'stuff'
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-f-''' in future and conditional tenses.
|-
| colspan=2 | '''fh''' <small>(lenition of '''f-''')</small>
| silent
| fhuinneog /ˈɪnʲoːg/ 'window' (lenited), fhíon /iːn̪ˠ/ 'wine' (lenited) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''g'''
| broad
| /g/
| gasúr /ˈgasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy', bog /bˠɔg/ 'soft'
|-
| slender
| /ɟ/
| geata /ˈɟat̪ˠə/ 'gate', carraig /ˈkaɾˠəɟ/ 'rock'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''gc'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''c-''')</small>
| broad
| /g/
| gcáis /gaːʃ/ 'cheese' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /ɟ/
| gceist /ɟɛʃtʲ/ 'question' (eclipsed)
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''gh'''
| broad
| /ɣ/ (word-initially)<br />silent after a long vowel
| ghasúr /ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy' (lenited)<br />Eoghan /ˈoːən̪ˠ/ 'Owen'
|-
| slender
| /j/ 
| gheata /ˈjat̪ˠə/ 'gate' (lenited), dóigh /d̪ˠoːj/ 'way, manner'
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''agh, aigh, eigh, igh, ogh, oigh'''. See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-(a)igh''' at the end of verbs. 
|-
| colspan=2 | '''h'''
| /h/
| hata /ˈhat̪ˠə/ 'hat', na héisc /nə heːʃc/ 'the fish' (plural) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''l, ll'''
| broad
| /ɫ̪/
| luí /ɫ̪iː/ 'lying (down)', poll /poːɫ̪/ 'hole'
|-
| slender
| /lʲ/
| leisciúil /ˈlʲɛʃcuːlʲ/ 'lazy', coill /kailʲ/ 'woods'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''m'''
| broad
| /mˠ/
| mór /mˠoːɾˠ/ 'big', am /aːmˠ/ 'time'
|-
| slender
| /mʲ/
| milis /ˈmʲilʲəʃ/ 'sweet', im /iːmʲ/ 'butter'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''mb'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''b-''')</small>
| broad
| /mˠ/
| mbaineann /ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/ 'takes' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /mʲ/
| mbéal /mʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''mh'''
| (broad)
| /w/
| mhór /woːɾˠ/ 'big' (lenited), lámha /ˈɫ̪aːwə/ 'hands', léamh /lʲeːw/ 'reading'
|-
| (slender)
| /vʲ/
| mhilis /ˈvʲilʲəʃ/ 'sweet' (lenited), uimhir /ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/ 'number', nimh /nʲɪvʲ/ 'poison'
|-
| colspan=3 | See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''amh, eamh, omh''' 
|-
| rowspan=2| '''n, nn'''
| broad
| /n̪ˠ/
| naoi /n̪ˠiː/ 'nine', ceann /caːn̪ˠ/ 'head'
|-
| slender
| /nʲ/
| neart /nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ 'strength', tinneas /ˈtʲɪnʲəsˠ/ 'illness'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''nc'''
| broad
| /ŋk/
| ancaire /ˈaŋkəɾʲə/ 'anchor'
|-
| slender
| /ɲc/
| rinc /ɾˠɪɲc/ 'dance'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''nd'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''d-''')</small>
| broad
| /n̪ˠ/
| ndorn /n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /nʲ/
| ndearg /ˈnʲaɾˠəg/ 'red' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ng'''
| broad
| /ŋ/ word-initially <small>(eclipsis of '''g-''') </small><br />/ŋg/ word-internally and finally
| ngasúr /ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy' (eclipsed)<br />long /ɫ̪uːŋg/ 'ship', teanga /ˈtʲaŋgə/ 'tongue'
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /ɲ/ word-initially <small>(eclipsis of '''g-''') </small><br />/ɲɟ/ word-internally and finally
| ngeata /ˈɲat̪ˠə/ 'gate' (eclipsed)<br />cuing /kɪɲɟ/ 'yoke', ingear /ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/ 'vertical'
|-
| /nʲ/ in final unstressed '''-ing''' 
| scilling /ˈʃcilʲənʲ/ 'shilling'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''p'''
| broad
| /pˠ/
| poll /pˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole', stop /sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/ 'stop'
|-
| slender
| /pʲ/
| príosún /ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison', truip /t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/ 'trip'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ph'''
| broad
| /fˠ/
| pholl /fˠoːɫ̪ʲ/ 'hole' (lenited)
|-
| slender
| /fʲ/
| phríosún /ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison' (lenited) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''r'''
| broad<br /><small>(Always broad word-initially. Always broad in '''rt, rth, rd, rn, rl, rs, sr'''.)</small>
| /ɾˠ/
| rí /ɾˠiː/ 'king', cuairt /kuəɾˠtʲ/ 'visit', oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ 'east', airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ 'height', coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːɫ̪/ 'corner', duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ 'stony beach', sreang /sˠɾˠaŋg/ 'string'
|-
| slender
| /rʲ/
| tirim /ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/ 'dry'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''rr'''
| /ɾˠ/
| barr /baːɾˠ/ 'tip, point', cairr /kaːɾˠ/ 'car' (genitive)
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''s'''
| broad
| /sˠ/<br /><small>(Always broad word-initially before '''m, p, r'''.)</small>
| Sasana /ˈsˠasˠən̪ˠə/ 'England', tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ 'beginning', speal /sˠpʲaɫ̪/ 'scythe', sméar /sˠmʲeːɾˠ/ 'blackberry', sreang /sˠɾˠaŋg/ 'string'
|-
| slender
| /ʃ/
| sean /ʃan̪ˠ/ 'old', cáis /kaːʃ/ 'cheese'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''sh'''
| broad
| /h/
| Shasana /ˈhasˠən̪ˠə/ 'England' (lenited) 
|-
| slender
| /h/<br />/ç/ before /aː, oː, u(ː)/ 
| shean /han̪ˠ/ 'old' (lenited)<br />Sheáin /çaːnʲ/ 'John' (genitive), sheol /çoːɫ̪/ 'sailed', shiúil /çuːlʲ/ 'walked', shiopa /ˈçʊpˠə/ 'shop' (lenited)
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''t'''
| broad
| /t̪ˠ/
| taisce /ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/ 'treasure', ceart /caɾˠt̪ˠ/ 'correct'
|-
| slender
| /tʲ/
| tír /tʲiːɾʲ/ 'country', beirt /bʲɛɾˠtʲ/ 'two (people)'
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-t-''' in verbal adjectives 
|-
| rowspan='4' | '''th'''
| broad
| /h/
| thaisce /ˈhaʃcə/ 'treasure' (lenited), athair /ˈahəɾʲ/ 'father'
|-
| slender
| /h/<br />/ç/ when lenited from /tʲaː-, tʲoː-, tʲu(ː)-/ 
| theanga /ˈhaŋgə/ 'tongue' (lenited)<br />theann /çaːn̪ˠ/ 'tight' (lenited), theocht /çoːxt̪ˠ/ 'heat' (lenited), thiúilip /ˈçuːlʲəpʲ/ 'tulip' (lenited), thiocfadh /ˈçʊkəx/ 'would come', thiubh /çʊw/ 'thick' (lenited) 
|-
| colspan=2 | Silent at the end of a [[syllable]]
| bláth /bˠɫ̪aː/ 'blossom', cith /cɪ/ 'shower', cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'equal' 
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-th-''' in verbal adjectives 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ts'''<br /><small>(special lenition of '''s-''' after '''an''' 'the')</small>
| broad
| /t̪ˠ/
| an tsolais /ən̪ˠ ˈt̪ˠɔɫ̪əʃ/ 'of the light'
|-
| slender
| /tʲ/
| an tSín /ənʲ tʲiːnʲ/ 'China'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''v'''
| broad
| /w/
| vóta /ˈwoːt̪ˠə/ 'vote'
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/
| veidhlín /ˈvʲailʲiːnʲ/ 'violin'
|}
 
==Vowels==
The following chart indicates how written vowels are ''generally'' pronounced. Each dialect has certain divergences from this general scheme.
{| class='wikitable'
! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''a'''
| rowspan=2 | stressed
| /a/
| fan /fˠan̪ˠ/ 'stay' (imper.)
|-
| /aː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
| tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠɫ̪uː/ 'happening', carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ '(small) heap', garda /ˈgaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ 'policeman'<br />mall /mˠaːɫ̪/ 'slow, late', ann /aːn̪ˠ/ 'there', barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ 'tip, point'<br />am /aːmˠ/ 'time'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| ólann /ˈoːɫ̪ən̪ˠ/ 'drink' (present), mála /ˈmˠaːɫ̪ə/ 'bag'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''á'''
| /aː/
| bán /bˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'white'
|-
| '''abh(a(i))'''
| stressed
| /au/
| abhainn /aunʲ/ 'river', cabhrach /ˈkauɾˠəx/ 'helpful'
|-
| '''adh(a(i))'''
| stressed
| /ai/
| adhairt /aiɾˠtʲ/ 'pillow', Tadhg /t̪ˠaig/ (man's name)
|-
| rowspan='2' | '''adh'''
| unstressed
| /ə/
| margadh /ˈmˠaɾˠəgə/ 'market'
|-
| colspan='3' | See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ae(i)'''
| /eː/
| Gaelach /ˈgeːɫ̪əx/ 'Gaelic', Gaeilge /ˈgeːlʲɟə/ 'Irish (language)'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''agh(a(i))'''
| /ai/
| aghaidh /aij/ 'face', saghsanna /ˈsˠaisˠən̪ˠə/ 'sorts, kinds'
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''ai'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| /a/
| baile /ˈbˠalʲə/ 'home'
|-
|  /aː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''
|  airne /aːɾˠnʲə/ 'sloe'<br />caillte /ˈkaːlʲtʲə/ 'lost, ruined', crainn /kɾˠaːnʲ/ 'trees'
|-
| /ɛ/ before '''bh''' in a handful of words
| raibh /ɾˠɛvʲ/ 'was' (dependent), daibhir /ˈd̪ˠɛvəɾʲ/ 'poor', saibhir /ˈsˠɛvʲərʲ/ 'rich'
|-
|  unstressed
|  /ə/
|  eolais /ˈoːɫ̪əʃ/ 'knowledge' (genitive)
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ái'''
| /aː/
| dáil /d̪ˠaːlʲ/ 'assembly', gabháil /ˈgawaːlʲ/ 'taking'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''aí'''
| /iː/
| maígh /mˠiːj/ 'claim' (imper.), gutaí /ˈgʊt̪ˠiː/ 'vowels'
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''aidh, aigh'''
| stressed
| /ai/
| aidhm /aimʲ/ 'aim', saighdiúir /ˈsˠaidʲuːrʲ/ 'soldier'
|-
| unstressed
| /iː/
| cleachtaidh /ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/ 'practice' (genitive), bacaigh /ˈbˠakiː/ 'beggar' (genitive)
|-
| colspan='3' |  See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| colspan=2 | '''aío'''
| /iː/
| naíonán /ˈn̪ˠiːn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'infant', beannaíonn /ˈbʲan̪ˠiːn̪ˠ/ 'blesses'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''amh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| Samhain /sˠaunʲ/ 'November', amhantar /ˈaun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/ 'venture', ramhraigh /ˈɾˠauɾˠiː/ 'fattened'
|-
| colspan=2 rowspan='2' | '''ao'''
| /iː/
| saol /sˠiːɫ̪/ 'life, world'
|-
| colspan=2 | /eː/ in the word aon /eːn̪ˠ/ 'one' and its derivatives, e.g. aontacht /ˈeːn̪ˠt̪ˠəxt̪ˠ/ 'union', na Stáit Aontaithe /n̪ˠə sˠt̪ˠaːtʲ ˈeːn̪ˠt̪ˠəhə/ 'the United States'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''aoi'''
| /iː/
| gaois /giːʃ/ 'shrewdness'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''e'''
| stressed
| /ɛ/
| te /tʲɛ/ 'hot'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/ 
| míle /ˈmʲiːlʲə/ 'thousand'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''é'''
| /eː/
| sé /ʃeː/ 'he'
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''ea'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| /a/
| bean /bʲan̪ˠ/ 'woman'
|-
| /aː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''
| bearna /ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/ 'gap'<br />feall /fʲaːɫ̪/ 'treachery', feanntach /ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/ 'severe'
|-
| colspan=2 | /ɔ/ in the word ''beag'' /bʲɔg/ 'small'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/ 
| seisean /ˈʃɛʃən̪ˠ/ 'he' (emph.) 
|-
| colspan=2 | '''éa'''
| /eː/
| déanamh /ˈdʲeːn̪ˠəw/ 'doing', buidéal /ˈbˠɪdʲeːɫ̪/ 'bottle'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eá'''
| /aː/
| Seán /ʃaːn̪ˠ/ 'John'<br />caisleán /ˈkaʃlʲaːn̪ˠ/ 'castle'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eabh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| leabhair /lʲauɾʲ/ 'books'<br />Feabhra /ˈfʲauɾˠə/ 'February'
|-
| '''eadh(a(i)'''
| stressed
| /ai/ 
| meadhg /mʲaig/ 'whey'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''-eadh'''
| unstressed
| /ə/ 
| briseadh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/ 'breaking'
|-
| colspan='3' |  See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eai'''
| /a/
| veain /vʲanʲ/ 'van'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eái'''
| /aː/
| meáin /mʲaːnʲ/ 'middles', caisleáin /ˈkaʃlʲaːnʲ/ 'castles'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eamh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| sleamhain /ʃlʲaunʲ/ 'smooth', leamhnacht /ˈlʲaun̪ˠəxt̪ˠ/ 'new milk'
|-
| rowspan='5' colspan=2 | '''ei'''
| /ɛ/
| ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ 'question'
|-
| /ɪ/ before '''m, mh, n'''
| creimeadh /ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/ 'corrosion, erosion', geimhreadh /ˈɟɪvʲrʲə/ 'winter', seinm /ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/ 'playing'
|-
| /eː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''
| eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ 'destruction', ceirnín /ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/ 'record album', ceird /ceːɾˠdʲ/ 'trade, craft'
|-
| /ai/ before syllable-final '''ll''' 
| feill- /fʲailʲ/ 'exceedingly'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''nn''' and word-final '''m''' 
| greim /ɟɾʲiːmʲ/ 'grip'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''éi'''
| /eː/
| scéimh /ʃceːvʲ/ 'beauty', páipéir /ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/ 'papers'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eidh(i/ea), eigh(i/ea)'''
| /ai/ 
| feidhm /fʲaimʲ/ 'function', leigheas /lʲaisˠ/ 'healing'
|-
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 | '''eo'''
| /oː/
| ceol /coːɫ̪/ 'music', baileofar /ˈbˠalʲoːfˠəɾˠ/ 'one will gather'
|-
| colspan=2 | /ɔ/ in the words ''anseo'' /ənʲˈʃɔ/ 'here', ''deoch'' /dʲɔx/ 'a drink', eochair /ˈɔxəɾʲ/ 'a key', and ''seo'' /ʃɔ/ 'this'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eoi'''
| /oː/
| dreoilín /ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/ 'wren', baileoimid /ˈbˠalʲoːmʲədʲ/ 'we will gather'
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''i'''
| rowspan=2 | stressed
| /ɪ/
| pic /pʲɪc/ 'pitch', ifreann /ˈɪfʲɾʲən/ 'hell'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''ll, nn'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
| cill /ciːlʲ/ 'church', cinnte /ˈciːnʲtʲə/ 'sure'<br />im /iːmʲ/ 'butter' 
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| faoistin /ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/ 'confession'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''í'''
| /iː/
| gnímh /ɟnʲiːvʲ/ 'act, deed' (gen.), cailín /ˈkalʲiːnʲ/ 'girl'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ia'''
| /iə/ 
| Diarmaid /dʲiərmədʲ/ 'Dermot'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iai''' 
| /iə/
| bliain /bʲlʲiənʲ/ 'year'
|-
| rowspan='2' | '''idh, igh'''
| unstressed
| /iː/
| tuillidh /ˈt̪ˠɪlʲiː/ 'addition' (gen.), coiligh /ˈkɛlʲiː/ 'rooster' (gen.)
|-
| colspan='3' |  See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| rowspan='3' colspan=2 | '''io'''
| /ɪ/ before coronals and '''th'''
| fios /fʲɪsˠ/ 'knowledge', bior /bʲɪɾˠ/ 'spit, spike', cion /cɪn̪ˠ/ 'affection', giota /ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/ 'bit, piece', giodam /ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/ 'restlessness', friotháil /ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/ 'attention'
|-
| /ʊ/ before noncoronals
| siopa /ˈʃʊpˠə/ 'shop', liom /lʲʊmˠ/ 'with me', tiocfaidh /ˈtʲʊkiː/ 'will come', Siobhán /ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ 'Joan', briogáid /ˈbʲɾʲʊgaːdʲ/ 'brigade', tiomáin /ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/ 'drive' (imper.), ionga /ˈʊŋgə/ '(finger)nail'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''nn''' 
| fionn /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'light-haired'
|-
| colspan='2' | '''ío'''
| /iː/
| síol /ʃiːɫ̪/ 'seed'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iu'''
| /ʊ/
| fliuch /fʲlʲʊx/ 'wet'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iú'''
| /uː/
| siúl /ʃuːɫ̪/ 'walk', bailiú /ˈbˠalʲuː/ 'gathering'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iúi'''
| /uː/
| ciúin /cuːnʲ/ 'quiet', inniúil /ˈɪnʲuːlʲ/ 'able, fit'
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''o'''
| rowspan=4 | stressed
| /ɔ/
| post /pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/ 'post'
|-
| /ʊ/ before '''n, m'''
| Donncha /ˈd̪ˠʊn̪əxə/ (man's name), cromóg /ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːg/ 'hooked nose'
|-
| /oː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, rr'''
| bord /bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/ 'table', orlach /ˈoːɾˠɫ̪əx/ 'inch'<br />poll /pˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole', corr /koːɾˠ/ 'odd'
|-
| /uː/ before syllable-final '''nn'''<br />before word-final '''m, ng'''
| fonn /fˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'desire, inclination'<br />trom /t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/ 'heavy', long /ɫ̪uːŋg/ 'ship'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| mo /mˠə/ 'my', cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'equal'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ó'''
| /oː/
| póg /pˠoːg/ 'kiss', armónach /ˈaɾˠəmˠoːn̪əx/ 'harmonic'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''obh(a(i)), odh(a(i)), ogh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| lobhar /ɫ̪auɾˠ/ 'leper', bodhar /bˠauɾˠ/ 'deaf', rogha /ɾˠau/ 'choice'
|-
| rowspan=7 | '''oi'''
| rowspan=6 | stressed
| /ɛ/
| scoil /sˠkɛlʲ/ 'school', troid /t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/ 'fight' (imper.), toitín /ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/ 'cigarette', oibre /ˈɛbʲɾʲə/ 'work' (gen.), thoir /hɛɾʲ/ 'in the east', cloiche /ˈkɫ̪ɛhə/ 'stone' (gen.)
|-
| /ɔ/ before '''s, cht, rs, rt, rth'''
| cois /kɔʃ/ 'foot' (dat.), cloisfidh /ˈkɫ̪ɔʃiː/ 'will hear', boicht /bˠɔxtʲ/ 'poor' (gen. sg. masc.), doirse /ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/ 'doors', goirt /gɔɾˠtʲ/ 'salty', oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ 'east'
|-
| /ɪ/ next to '''n, m, mh''' 
| anois /əˈn̪ˠɪʃ/ 'now', gloine /ˈgɫ̪ɪnʲə/ 'glass', cnoic /kn̪ˠɪc/ 'hills', roimh /ɾˠɪvʲ/ 'before', coimeád /ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/ 'keep' (imper.), loinge /ˈɫ̪ɪɲɟə/ 'ship' (gen.) 
|-
| /ai/ before syllable-final '''ll''' 
| coill /kailʲ/ 'forest, woods', coillte /ˈkailʲtʲə/ 'forests'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''nn''' and word-final '''m''' 
| foinn /fˠiːnʲ/ 'wish' (gen.), droim /d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/ 'back'
|-
| /oː/ before '''rl, rn, rd''' 
| coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːɫ̪/ 'corner', oird /oːɾˠdʲ/ 'sledgehammers' 
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| éadroime /eːdrəmʲə/ 'lightness' 
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ói'''
| /oː/
| móin /mˠoːnʲ/ 'sod, turf', bádóir /ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːrʲ/ 'boatman'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''oí'''
| /iː/
| croíleacán /ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːn̪ˠ/ 'core'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''oidh(i/ea), oigh(i/ea)''' 
| /ai/
| oidhre /airʲə/ 'heir', loighic /ɫ̪aic/ 'logic'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''oío'''
| /iː/
| croíonna /ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/ 'hearts'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''omh(a(i))'''
| /oː/
| tomhail /t̪ˠoːlʲ/ 'consume' (imper.), Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːn̪ˠəx/ 'Sunday'
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''u'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| /ʊ/
| dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ 'black'
|-
| /ɔ/ in English loanwords, corresponds to /ʌ/ 
| bus /bˠɔsˠ/, club /kɫ̪ɔbˠ/
|-
| /uː/ before '''rl, rn, rd''' 
| burla /ˈbˠuːɾˠɫ̪ə/ 'bundle', murnán /ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'ankle', urlár /ˈuːɾˠɫ̪aːɾˠ/ 'floor'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| agus /ˈagəs/ 'and'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ú'''
| /uː/
| tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ 'beginning'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ua'''
| /uə/
| fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ 'cold'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''uai'''
| /uə/
| fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ 'got'
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''ui'''
| rowspan=4 | stressed
| /ɪ/
| duine /ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/ 'person'
|-
| /ʊ/ before '''cht, rs, rt''' 
| tuirseach /ˈt̪ˠʊɾˠʃəx/ 'tired', cluichte /ˈkɫ̪ʊxtʲə/ 'harassment' (gen.)
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''ll, nn'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
| tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːlʲtʲən̪ˠəx/ 'deserving', puinn /pˠiːnʲ/ 'much'<br />suim /sˠiːmʲ/ 'interest'
|-
| /uː/ before '''rl, rn, rd''' 
| duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ 'stony beach', tuirne /ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠnʲə/ 'spinning wheel'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| aguisín /ˈagəʃiːnʲ/ 'addition'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''úi'''
| /uː/
| súil /suːlʲ/ 'eye', cosúil /ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/ 'like, resembling'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''uí'''
| /iː/
| buígh /bˠiːj/ 'turn yellow' (imper.)
|-
| colspan=2 | '''uío'''
| /iː/
| buíon /bˠiːn̪ˠ/ 'band, troop'
|}
 
;Observations
*When '''e''', '''é''', '''i''', or '''í''' come after or before a consonant, they make the consonant slender.
*Between a consonant and a vowel, or vice-versa, '''e''' and '''i''' are usually silent, and just indicate that the adjacent consonants are slender. However, they may be pronounced in the digraphs '''ei''', '''ia''', '''io''', '''oi''', '''ui'''.
*The accented letters '''é''' and '''í''' are always pronounced.
*In [[digraph]]s and [[trigraph]]s containing a vowel with an [[acute accent]] (known in Irish as a ''fada'' or ''síneadh fada''), only the accented vowel is normally pronounced.
 
==Epenthetic (inserted) vowel==
 
In a sequence of short vowel + /l, r, n/ + [[labial consonant|labial]] or [[velar consonant]] an unwritten /ə/ gets pronounced between the /l, r, n/ and the following consonant:
 
*gorm /ˈgɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'blue'
*dearg /ˈdʲaɾˠəg/ 'red'
*dorcha /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ 'dark'
*ainm /ˈanʲəmʲ/ 'name'
*seanchaí /ˈʃan̪ˠəxiː/ 'storyteller'
*leanbh /ˈlʲan̪ˠəw/ 'child'
*colm /ˈkɔɫ̪əm/ 'dove'
 
There is no epenthesis before [[phonation|voiceless]] [[stop consonant|stops]] or after long [[vowel]]s and [[diphthong]]s:
*corp /kɔɾˠpˠ/ 'body'
*olc /ɔɫ̪k/ 'bad'
*téarma /tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ 'term'
*dualgas /ˈd̪ˠuəɫ̪gəsˠ/ 'duty'
 
==Special pronunciations in verb forms==
 
In [[verb]] forms some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.
 
In the [[imperfect]], [[conditional]], and [[imperative]], ''-dh'' is pronounced [tʲ] before a pronoun beginning with ''s-'':
*mholadh sé [ˈwɔɫ̪ətʲ ʃeː] 'he used to praise'
*bheannódh sibh [ˈvʲan̪ˠoːtʲ ʃɪvʲ] 'you (pl.) would bless'
*osclaíodh sí [ˈɔsˠkɫ̪iːtʲ ʃiː] 'let her open'
 
Otherwise it is pronounced [x]:
*mholadh an buachaill [ˈwɔɫ̪əx ə ˈbˠuəxəlʲ] 'the boy used to praise'
*bheannódh na cailíní [ˈvʲanoːx n̪ˠə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː] 'the girls would bless'
*osclaíodh Siobhán [ˈɔsˠkɫ̪iːx ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ] 'let Siobhán open'
 
In the preterite impersonal, ''-dh'' is pronounced [w]:
*moladh é [ˈmˠɔɫ̪əw eː] 'he was praised'
*beannaíodh na cailíní [ˈbʲan̪iːw nə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː] 'the girls were blessed'
 
''-(a)idh'' and ''-(a)igh'' are pronounced [ə] before a pronoun, otherwise [iː]:
*molfaidh mé [ˈmˠɔɫ̪hə mʲeː] 'I will praise'
*molfaidh Seán [ˈmˠɔɫ̪hiː ʃaːn] 'Seán will praise'
*bheannaigh mé [ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː] 'I blessed'
*bheannaigh Seán [ˈvʲan̪ˠiː ʃaːn] 'Seán blessed'
 
In the [[future tense|future]] and conditional, ''f'' (broad or slender) has the following effects:
#After vowels and sonorants (/ɫ̪ lʲ mˠ mʲ n̪ˠ nʲ ɾˠ ɾʲ/) it is pronounced [h]:
#*molfaidh [ˈmˠɔɫ̪hiː] 'will praise'
#*dhófadh [ˈɣoːhəx] 'would burn'
#*déarfaidh ]ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː] 'will say'
#It makes a voiced obstruent (/bˠ bʲ vʲ d̪ˠ g/) or /w/ voiceless:
#*scuabfadh [ˈsˠkuəpəx] 'would sweep'
#*goidfidh [ˈgɛtʲiː] 'will steal'
#*leagfadh [ˈlʲakəx] 'would lay'
#*scríobhfaidh [ˈʃcɾʲiːfˠiː] 'will write'
#*shnámhfadh [ˈhn̪ˠaːfˠəx] 'would swim'
#It is silent after a voicless obstruent (/k c x ç pˠ pʲ  sˠ ʃ t̪ˠ tʲ/)
#*brisfidh [ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː] 'will break'
#*ghlacfadh [ˈɣɫ̪akəx] 'would accept'
#But in the future and conditional impersonal ''f'' is often [fˠ, fʲ]:
#*molfar [ˈmˠɔɫ̪fˠəɾˠ] 'one will praise'
#*dhófaí [ˈɣoːfˠiː] 'one would burn'
#*scuabfar [ˈsˠkuəbˠfˠəɾˠ] 'one will sweep'
#*brisfear [ˈbʲɾʲɪʃfʲəɾˠ] 'one will break'
#In the [[past participle]] ''th'' (also ''t'' after ''d'') is silent but makes a voiced obstruent voiceless:
#*scuabtha [ˈsˠkuəpˠə] 'swept'
#*troidte [ˈt̪ˠɾˠɛtʲə] 'fought'
#*ruaigthe [ˈɾˠuəcə] 'chased'


==Footnotes==
==Footnotes==
<div class="references-2column">
{{reflist|2}}
<references/>
</div>
==See also==
*[[Irish language]]
*[[Phonology of Irish]]
*[[Ireland (state)]]

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A sample of Irish script.Template:PD-image

The orthography of Irish refers to the set of rules and grapheme-phoneme (sound-letter) correspondences used to write this Celtic language. Irish today is written in a modified Latin alphabet, but the earliest writings originating in Ireland, of Primitive Irish, are in the Ogam script, developed around the fourth to fifth centuries). From around the seventh century, Old Irish began to be written in an insular Latin script, which retained some Ogam features.[1]

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Russell (2005: 414-420).
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