Zoroastrianism: Difference between revisions

From Citizendium
Jump to navigation Jump to search
imported>David E. Volk
mNo edit summary
imported>Minhaj Ahmed Khan Lodi
(re-writing from scratch, imported from WP)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{subpages}}
{{subpages}}
'''Zoroastrianism''' is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra, Zartosht). '''Mazdaism''' is the religion that acknowledges the divine authority of [[Ahura Mazda]], proclaimed by Zoroaster.
'''Zoroastrianism''' is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra, Zartosht), which acknowledges the presence of two deities, [[Ahura Mazda]] and [[Anghurya Manyu]].


As demonstrated by Zoroastrianistic creed and [[Articles of Faith|articles of faith]], the two terms are effectively synonymous. In a declaration of the creed — the ''Fravarānē'' — the adherent states: "…I profess myself a devotee of Mazda, a follower of Zarathustra." (''[[Yasna]]'' 12.2, 12.8)
While Zoroastrianism was once the dominant religion of much of [[Greater Iran]], the number of adherents has dwindled to not more than 200,000 worldwide,<!-- citations are in the properly contextualized [[#Demographics]] section below --> with concentrations in [[India]] and [[Iran]] (see [[#Demographics|demographics]] below).
== Terminology ==
The term ''Zoroastrianism'' was first attested by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' in 1874 in [[Archibald Sayce|Archibald Sayce's]] ''Principles of Comparative Philology''. The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in Western scholarship is attributed to [[Thomas Browne]] (1605–1682), who briefly refers to the prophet in his 1643 ''[[Religio Medici]]''. The [[OED]] records 1743 (Warburton, ''Pope's Essay'') as the earliest reference to Zoroaster.
The term ''Mazdaism'' is a typical 19th century construct, taking ''Mazda-'' from the name [[Ahura Mazda]] and adding the suffix ''-ism'' to suggest a belief system. The March 2001 draft edition of the ''[[OED]]'' also records an alternate form, ''Mazdeism'', perhaps derived from the French ''Mazdéisme'', which first appeared in 1871. The Zoroastrian name of the religion is ''Mazdayasna'', which combines ''Mazda-'' with the [[Avestan language]] word ''[[yasna]]'', meaning "worship, devotion".
In the [[English language]], an adherent of the faith commonly refers to him- or herself as a Zoroastrian or, less commonly, a Zarathustrian. An older, but still widespread expression is ''Behdin'', meaning "follower of ''Daena''", for which "[Good] Religion" is one translation. In the Zoroastrian [[liturgy]], the term ''Behdin'' is also used as a title for an individual who has been formally inducted into the religion (see ''[[navjote]]'' for details).
== Distinguishing characteristics ==
=== Basic beliefs ===
# There is one universal and transcendental God, [[Ahura Mazda]], the one uncreated creator and to whom all worship is ultimately directed.
# Ahura Mazda's creation — evident as ''[[asha]]'', truth and order — is the [[antithesis]] of chaos, evident as ''druj'', falsehood and disorder. The resulting conflict involves the entire universe, including humanity, which has an active role to play in the conflict.
# Active participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep the chaos at bay. This ''active'' participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of [[free will]], and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of [[monasticism]].
# Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail, at which point the universe will undergo a cosmic renovation and time will end (''cf:'' [[Zoroastrian eschatology]]). In the final renovation, all of creation — even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to "darkness" — will be reunited in Ahura Mazda.
# In Zoroastrian tradition, the malevolent is represented by [[Angra Mainyu]], the "Destructive Principle", while the benevolent is represented through Ahura Mazda's [[Amesha Spenta|Spenta Mainyu]], the instrument or "Bounteous Principle" of the act of creation. It is through Spenta Mainyu that Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind, and through which the Creator interacts with the world. According to Zoroastrian cosmology, in articulating the [[Ahuna Vairya]] formula, Ahura Mazda made His ultimate triumph evident to Angra Mainyu.
# As expressions and aspects of Creation, Ahura Mazda emanated seven "sparks", the [[Amesha Spenta]]s, "Bounteous Immortals" that are each the hypostasis and representative of one aspect of that Creation. These Amesha Spenta are in turn assisted by a league of lesser principles, the [[Yazata]]s, each "Worthy of Worship" and each again a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation.
=== Other characteristics ===
* The symbol of fire: The energy of the creator is represented in Zoroastrianism by fire and the sun which are both enduring, radiant, pure and life sustaining. Zoroastrians usually pray in front of some form of fire (or any source of light). (It is important to note that fire is not worshipped by Zoroastrians, but is used simply as symbol and a point of focus, much like the crucifix in Catholicism. For details, see [[Fire temple]])
* Proselytizing and conversion: Parsi Zoroastrians do not [[proselytism|proselytize]]. In recent years, however, Zoroastrian communities in Iran, Europe and the Americas have been more tolerant towards conversion. While this move has not been supported officially by the priesthood in Mumbai, India, it has been endorsed by the Council of Mobeds in Tehran.
* Inter-faith marriages: As in many other faiths, Zoroastrians are strongly encouraged to marry others of the same faith, but this is not a requirement of the religion itself. Some members of the Indian Zoroastrian community (the [[Parsi]]s) contend that a child must have a Parsi father to be eligible for introduction into the faith, but this assertion is considered by most to be a violation of the Zoroastrian tenets of gender equality, and may be a remnant of an old legal definition (since overruled) of Parsi. However, to this day, some priests will not perform the [[Navjote]] ceremony — i.e. the rites of admission into the religion — for children of mixed-marriages, irrespective of which parent is a non-Parsi. This issue is a matter of great debate within the Parsi community, but with the increasingly global nature of modern society and the dwindling number of Zoroastrians, such opinions are less vociferous than they were previously.
* Death and burial: Religious rituals related to death are all concerned with the person's soul and not the body. Zoroastrians believe that on the fourth day after death, the human soul leaves the body and the body remains as an empty shell. Traditionally, Zoroastrians disposed of their dead by leaving them atop open-topped enclosures, called [[Towers of Silence]], or ''Dokhmas''. Vultures and the weather would clean the flesh off the bones, which were then placed into an [[ossuary]] at the center of the Tower (usually a well). Fire and Earth were considered too sacred for the dead to be placed in them. While this practice is continued in India by some Parsis, it had ended by the beginning of the twentieth century in Iran. In India, burial and cremation are becoming increasingly popular alternatives.
== History ==
=== Classical Antiquity ===
Although older (9th/10th century BCE, see [[Zoroaster]]) Zoroastrianism only enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. [[Herodotus]]' ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' (completed ''c.'' 440 BCE) includes a description of [[Greater Iran]]ian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. (See [[Towers of Silence]]).
Perhaps more importantly, ''The Histories'' is a primary source of information on the early period of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid era]] (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the [[Magi]]. According to Herodotus i.101, the Magi were the sixth tribe of the Medians (until the unification of the Persian empire under [[Cyrus the Great]], all Iranians were referred to as Mede or Mada by the peoples of the Ancient World), who appear to have been the priestly caste of the Mesopotamian-influenced branch of Zoroastrianism today known as [[Zurvanism]], and who wielded considerable influence at the courts of the [[Medes|Median]] emperors.
Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]] and later his son [[Cambyses II]] curtailed the powers of the Magi after these had attempted to seed dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the Magi revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger son [[Smerdis]], took power shortly thereafter. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations" acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68).
According to the [[Behistun Inscription]], pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months before being overthrown by [[Darius I]] in 521 BCE. The "Magi", though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (named Gaumata), had a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.
Whether Cyrus II was a Zoroastrian is subject to debate. It did however influence him to the extent that it became the non-imposing religion of his empire, and its beliefs would later allow Cyrus to free the Jews from captivity (and allow them to return to [[Judea]]) when the emperor took [[Babylon]] in 539 BCE. Whether Darius I, though certainly a devotee of [[Ahura Mazda]] (as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription), was a follower of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established, since a devotion to Ahura Mazda was (at the time) not necessarily an indication of an adherence to Zoroaster's teaching.
Darius I and later [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid emperors]], though acknowledging their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, appear to have permitted religions to coexist. Nonetheless, it was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism gained momentum, and a number of the Zoroastrian texts (that today are part of the greater compendium of the [[Avesta]]) have been attributed to that period.  It was also during the (later) Achaemenid era that many of the divinities and divine concepts of proto-Indo-Iranian religion(s) were incorporated in Zoroastrianism, in particular, those to whom the days of the month of the [[Zoroastrian calendar]] are dedicated. That religious calendar, which is still in use today, is itself (to some extent) an Achaemenid-era development.  Those divinities, the [[yazata]]s, are present-day Zoroastrianism's [[angel]]s. (Dhalla, 1938).
Almost nothing is known of the status of Zoroastrianism under the [[Seleucids]] and [[Parthians]] who ruled over Persia following [[Alexander the Great]]'s invasion in 330 BCE.  According to later Zoroastrian legend (''[[Denkard]]'', ''[[Book of Arda Viraf]]''), many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost when Alexander's troops destroyed the royal library at [[Persepolis]] subsequent to the taking of the city. [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus Siculus's]] ''Bibliotheca historia'' (completed ''c.'' 60 BCE), which is to a great extent an encapsulation of earlier works, appears to substantiate Zoroastrian legend (Diod. 17.72.2–17.72.6). According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] bear traces of having been subjected to fire (Stolze, 1882). Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts "written on parchment in gold ink" as suggested by the ''Denkard'' actually existed remains a matter of speculation, but is in all likelihood untrue. Given that many of the ''Denkard''s statements-as-fact have since been established as untrue, among scholars, the tale of the library is widely accepted to be a fiction. (Kellens, 2002)
Zoroastrianism had a significant influence on [[Greek philosophy]] and [[History of Western philosophy|Roman philosophy]]. Several [[ancient Greek]] writers such as  [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] and [[Latin]] writers such as [[Pliny the Elder]] praised Zoroastrian philosophy as "the most famous and most useful". [[Plato]] learnt of Zoroastrian philosophy through Eudoxus and incorporated some of it into his own [[Platonic realism]].<ref>A. D. Nock (1929), "''Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland'' by R. Reitzenstein, H. H. Schaeder, Fr. Saxl", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' '''49''' (1), p. 111-116 [111].</ref> In the 3rd century BC, however, [[Colotes]] accused Plato's ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'' of plagiarizing parts of Zoroaster's ''On Nature'', such as the [[Myth of Er]].<ref>A. D. Nock (1929), "''Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland'' by R. Reitzenstein, H. H. Schaeder, Fr. Saxl", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' '''49''' (1), p. 111-116.</ref><ref>David N. Livingstone (2002), ''The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization'', p. 144-145, iUniverse, ISBN 0595231993.</ref> Plato's contemporary, [[Heraclides Ponticus]], wrote a text called ''Zoroaster'' based on Zoroaster's philosophy in order to express his disagreement with Plato on [[natural philosophy]].<ref>David N. Livingstone (2002), ''The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization'', p. 147, iUniverse, ISBN 0595231993.</ref>
=== Late antiquity ===
When the [[Sassanid dynasty]] came into power in 228 CE, they aggressively promoted the [[Zurvanite]] form of Zoroastrianism and in some cases persecuted [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]]. When the Sassanids captured territory, they often built fire temples there to promote their religion. The Sassanids were suspicious of Christians not least because of their perceived ties to the Christian [[Roman Empire]]. Thus, those  Christians loyal to the [[List of Patriarchs of Babylon|Patriarchate of Babylon]] — which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned [[Nestorianism]] — were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids. Nestorians lived in large numbers in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Khuzestan]] during this period.
A form of Zoroastrianism was apparently also the chief religion of pre-Christian [[Caucasus]] region, or at least was prominent there. During periods of Sassanid suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote the religion there as well.
Well before the 6th century, Zoroastrianism had spread to northern [[China]] via the [[Silk Road]], gaining official status in a number of Chinese states.  Remains of Zoroastrian temples have been found in [[Kaifeng]] and [[Zhenjiang]], and according to some scholars, who remained as late as the 1130s, but by the 13th century the religion had faded from prominence in China. However, many scholars who assert the influence of Zoroastrianism (as well as later [[Manicheism]]) on elements of Buddhism, especially in terms of light symbolism.
</div>
=== Middle Ages ===
In the 7th century, the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Sassanid dynasty was overthrown by the Arabs]]. Although some of the later rulers had Zoroastrian shrines destroyed, generally Zoroastrians were included as [[People of the Book]] and allowed to practice their religion. Mass conversions to Islam were not imposed,<ref name="Buillet_1979_???">{{harvnb|Buillet|1978|p=???}}.</ref> in accordance with Islamic law. Though some scholars debate the validity of these claims.<ref>http://www.vohuman.org/Article/Islamic%20era%20histroy%20of%20Zoroastrians%20of%20Iran.htm</ref> . However, there was a slow but steady social pressure to convert.<ref name="Buillet_1979_37.138">{{harvnb|Buillet|1978|p=37,138}}.</ref> The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, with Islam more slowly being accepted among the peasantry and landed gentry.<ref name="Buillet_1979_59">{{harvnb|Buillet|1978|p=59}}.</ref>
Many Zoroastrians fled, among them several groups who eventually migrated to the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. According to the [[Qissa-i Sanjan]] "Story of Sanjan", the only existing account of the early years of Zoroastrian refugees in India, the immigrants originated from [[Greater Khorasan|(greater) Khorasan]]. The descendants of those and other settlers, who are today known as the [[Parsi]]s, founded the Indian cities of [[Sanjan (Gujarat)|Sanjan]] and [[Navsari]], which are said to have been named after the cities of their origin: [[Sanjan (Khorasan)|Sanjan]] (near [[Merv]], in present-day [[Turkmenistan]]) and the eponymous [[Sari (city)|Sari]] (in modern [[Mazandaran]], [[Iran]]). (Kotwal, 2004)
In the centuries following the fall of the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism began to gradually return to the form it had had under the Achaemenids, and no evidence of what is today called the "Zurvan Heresy" exists beyond the 10th century CE. (Boyce, 2002) Ironically, it was Zurvanism and Zurvan-influenced texts that first reached the west, leading to the supposition that Zoroastrianism was a religion with two deities: Zurvan and Ahura Mazda (the latter being opposed by [[Angra Mainyu]]).
=== Modern Era ===
Today, there are significantly fewer Zoroastrians than there once were.  Over the centuries, adherents of the faith have dispersed in all directions, but greater concentrations of Zoroastrians may still be found on the [[Indian subcontinent]] and in Iran.
== Relation to other religions and cultures ==
Zoroastrianism is uniquely important in the history of religion because of its possible formative links to both [[Western religions|Western]] and [[Eastern religions|Eastern]] religious traditions. As "the oldest of the revealed [[creed]]al religions", Zoroastrianism "probably had more influence on mankind directly or indirectly than any other faith".<ref name="Boyce_1979_p1">{{harvnb|Boyce|1979|p=1}}.</ref>
It has been asserted<ref name="BlackRowley_1987_607b">{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1987|p=607b}}.</ref><ref name="Duchesne-Guillemin_1988_815">{{harvnb|Duchesne-Guillemin|1988|p=815}}.</ref> that key concepts of [[Zoroastrian eschatology]] and [[demonology]] had influence on the [[Abrahamic religion]]s. However, Boyce<ref name="Boyce_1982_202">e.g. {{harvnb|Boyce|1982|p=202}}.</ref> and other Iranists also tell us that Zoroastrianism itself inherited ideas from other belief systems. As such, Zoroastrianism, like other ''practiced'' religions, accommodates some degree of [[syncretism]]. For example, one of the popular strains within Zoroastrianism considers both good and evil as ''creations'' of God. This relatively recent development is sometimes attributed to influence from Christianity (see [[Angra Mainyu#In present-day Zoroastrianism|Angra Mainyu in present-day Zoroastrianism]] for details), though historically, Orthodox Christianity itself does not adhere to the belief that God created evil. In historical Christian Theology, evil is disobedience to God.
Many traits of Zoroastrianism can be traced back to the culture and beliefs of the proto-Indo-Iranian period, and Zoroastrianism consequently shares some elements with the [[historical Vedic religion]] that also has its origins in that era. However, Zoroastrianism was also strongly affected by the later culture of the Iranian [[Heroic Age (literary theory)|Heroic Age]] (1500 BCE onwards), an influence that the Indic religions were not subject to. Nonetheless, scholars have used evidence from the texts of both religious systems to reconstruct the earlier stage of [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] beliefs and culture. This has also formed attempts to characterise the even earlier [[Proto-Indo-European religion]] and so, for example, determine the process by which [[Dyeus]] became [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Sabazios]], [[Zeus]], and [[Tyr]]. [[Norse mythology|Norse eschatology]], involving cosmic conflagration by [[Surtr]] during [[Ragnarök]], as well as the death and resurrection of [[Baldr]], may derive from Zoroastrian influence before any Christian influence.
Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are in turn present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples of the [[Greater Iran]], not least because Zoroastrianism, for a thousand years, was a dominant influence on the people of the cultural continent. Even after the rise of Islam and the loss of direct influence, Zoroastrianism remained part of the cultural heritage of the [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]]-speaking world, in part as festivals and customs  but also because [[Ferdowsi]] incorporated a number of the figures and stories from the [[Avesta]] in his epic ''[[Shahnameh|Shāhnāme]]'', which in turn is pivotal to Iranian identity.
== Religious texts ==
==== Scripture ====
{{main|Avesta}}
The [[Avesta]] is the collection of the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. Although the texts are very old, the compendium as we know it today is essentially the result of a [[redaction]] that is thought to have occurred during the reign of [[Shapur II]] (309–379 CE). However, some portions of the collection have been lost since then, especially after the fall of the [[Sassanid empire]] in 651 CE, after which Zoroastrianism was supplanted by [[Islam]]. The oldest existing copy of an [[Avestan language]] text dates to 1288 CE.
The most ancient of the texts of the Avesta are in an old or ''Gathic'' Avestan. The majority of the texts are however from a later period: most are probably from the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid era]] (648–330 BCE), with a few being even younger. All the texts are believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before they found written form, and in existing copies, the Avestan language words are written in ''[[Avestan alphabet|Din dabireh]]'' script, a [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid era]] (226–651 CE) invention.
The various texts of the Avesta are generally divided into topical categories, but these are by no means fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to place the five categories in two groups, one liturgical and the other general.
* The ''[[Yasna]]'', the primary liturgical collection. The ''Yasna'' includes the ''[[Gathas]]'', which are thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself.
* The ''[[Visparad]]'', a collection of supplements to the ''Yasna''.
* The [[Yasht|''Yasht''s]], hymns in honor of the divinities.
* The ''[[Vendidad]]'', describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them.
* Shorter texts and prayer collections, the five ''nyaishes'' "worship, praise", the ''siroze'' "thirty days" (see [[Zoroastrian calendar]]) and the ''afringans'' "blessings". Some of these fragments are collected in the ''Khorda Avesta'', the "Little Avesta", which is the collection of texts for daily lay (as opposed to priestly) use.
==== Other texts ====
The texts of the Avesta are complemented by several secondary works of religious or semi-religious nature, which although not sacred and not used as scripture, have a significant influence on Zoroastrian doctrine. They are all of a much later date — in general from between the 9th and 12th centuries — with the youngest treatises dating to the 17th century. Some of these works quote passages that are believed to be from lost sections of the Avesta.
The most important of these secondary texts (of which there some 60 in all) are:
* The ''[[Denkard|Dēnkard]]'' "Acts of Religion" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Bundahishn]]'' "Primordial Creation" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Menog-i Khrad|Mēnog-ī Khirad]]'' "Spirit of Wisdom" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Book of Arda Viraf|Arda Viraf Nāmag]]'' "Book of Arda Viraf" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Sad Dar]]'' "Hundred Doors or Chapters" in Modern Persian
* The ''Rivayat''s or traditional treatises in Middle and Modern Persian
The use of the expression ''Zend-Avesta'' to refer to the Avesta, or the use of ''Zend'' as the name of a language or script, are relatively recent and popular mistakes. The word ''Zend'' or ''Zand'', meaning "commentary, translation", refers to supplementaries in Middle Persian not intended for use as theological texts by themselves but for religious instruction of the (by then) non-Avestan-speaking public. In contrast, the texts of the Avesta proper remained sacrosanct and continued to be recited in Avestan — which was considered a [[sacred language]].
In a general sense, all the secondary texts mentioned above are also included in the ''Zend'' rubric since they too often include commentaries on the [[Avesta]] and on the religion.
== Principal beliefs ==
[[Ahura Mazda]] is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything which can and cannot be seen, the Eternal, the Pure and the only Truth. In the [[Gathas]], the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism were thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the prophet acknowledged devotion to no other divinity besides Ahura Mazda.
''Daena'' (''din'' in modern [[Persian language|Persian]]) is the eternal Law, whose order was revealed to humanity through the ''Mathra-Spenta'' 'Holy Words'. ''Daena'' has been used to mean religion, faith, law, even as a translation for the Hindu and Buddhist term [[Dharma]], religious duty, but which can also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue. The metaphor of the 'path' of ''Daena'' is represented in Zoroastrianism by the muslin undershirt ''Sudra'', the 'Good/Holy Path', and the 72-thread ''[[Kushti]]'' girdle, the "Pathfinder".
''Daena'' should not be confused with the fundamental principle ''[[asha]]'' (Vedic ''rta''), the equitable law of the universe, which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, ''asha'' was the course of everything observable, the motion of the planets and astral bodies, the progression of the seasons, the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset. All physical creation (''geti'') was thus determined to run according to a master plan — inherent to Ahura Mazda — and violations of the order (''druj'') were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. This concept of ''asha'' versus the ''druj'' should not be confused with the good-versus-evil battle evident in western religions, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the ''asha'' versus ''druj'' concept is more subtle and nuanced, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth, righteousness). Moreover, in his role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of ''druj'' which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated. Thus, in Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda was perceived to be the creator of only the good (Yasna 31.4), the "supreme benevolent providence" (Yasna 43.11), that will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1).
In this schema of ''asha'' versus ''druj'', mortal beings (humans and animals both) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict and it is their ''duty'' to defend order, which would decay without counter''action''. Throughout the [[Gathas]], Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions; and accordingly [[asceticism]] is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism. In later Zoroastrianism, this was explained as fleeing from the experiences of life, which was the very purpose that the ''urvan'' (most commonly translated as the 'soul') was sent into the mortal world to collect. The avoidance of any aspect of life, which includes the avoidance of the pleasures of life, is a shirking of the responsibility and duty to oneself, one's ''urvan'', and one's family and social obligations.
Thus, central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose between the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work of ''druj''. Similarly, [[predestination]] is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act to one another. Reward, punishment, happiness and grief all depend on how individuals live their life.
In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds. Those who do evil have themselves to blame for their ruin. Zoroastrian morality is then to be summed up in the simple phrase, "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" (''Humata'', ''Hukhta'', ''Hvarshta'' in [[Avestan]]), for it is through these that ''asha'' is maintained and ''druj'' is kept in check.
Through accumulation, several other beliefs were introduced to the religion, that in some instances supersede those expressed in the Gathas. In the late 19th century, the moral and immoral forces came to be represented by ''Spenta Mainyu'' and its Satanic [[antithesis]] ''[[Angra Mainyu]]'', the 'good spirit' and 'evil spirit' emanations of Ahura Mazda respectively. Although the names are old, this opposition is a modern western-influenced development popularized by [[Martin Haug]] in the 1880s, and was in effect a realignment of the precepts of [[Zurvanism]] (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), which had invented a ''third'' deity, ''Zurvan'', in order to explain a mention of twinship (''Yasna'' 30.3) between the moral and immoral. Although Zurvanism had died out by the 10th century, the critical question of the "twin brothers" mentioned in ''Yasna'' 30.3 remained, and Haug's explanation provided a convenient  defence against Christian missionaries who disparaged the [[Parsi]]s (Indian Zoroastrians) for their 'dualism'. Haug's concept was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine.
[[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid era]] (648–330 BCE) Zoroastrianism developed the abstract concepts of heaven, hell, personal and final judgement, all of which are only alluded to in the [[Gathas]]. ''Yasna'' 19 (which has only survived in a [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid era]] (226–650 CE) ''Zend'' commentary on the ''[[Ahuna Vairya]]'' invocation), prescribes a Path to Judgement known as the ''Chinvat Peretum'' or ''[[Chinvat bridge]]'' (''cf:'' [[As-Sirāt]] in Islam), which all souls had to cross, and judgement (over thoughts, words, deeds performed during a lifetime) was passed as they were doing so. However, the Zoroastrian personal judgement is not final. At the end of time, when evil is finally defeated, all souls will be ultimately reunited with their [[Fravashi]]. Thus, Zoroastrianism can be said to be a universalist religion with respect to salvation.
In addition, and strongly influenced by Babylonian and Akkadian practices, the Achaemenids popularized shrines and temples, hitherto alien forms of worship. In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of [[Mithra]], [[Aredvi Sura Anahita]], [[Vahram|Verethregna]] and [[Tishtrya]], all of which, in addition to their original (proto-)Indo-Iranian functions, now also received Perso-Babylonian functions.
Although the worship of images would eventually fall out of favour (and be replaced by the iconoclastic [[fire temple]]s), the lasting legacy of the Achaemenids was a vast, complex hierarchy of [[Yazata|''Yazatas'']] (modern Zoroastrianism's Angels) that were now not just evident in the religion, but firmly established, not least because the divinities received dedications in the [[Zoroastrian calendar]], thus ensuring that they were frequently invoked. Additionally, the [[Amesha Spenta]], the six originally abstract terms that were regarded as direct emanations or aspects or "divine sparks" of Ahura Mazda, came to be personified as an archangel retinue.
== Adherents ==
Small Zoroastrian communities may be found all over the world, with a continuing concentration in Western India and Central Iran. Zoroastrians of the diaspora are primarily located in [[Great Britain]] and the former British colonies — in particular [[Canada]] and [[Australia]] — but the [[United States]] has become a preferred destination in recent decades. Zoroastrian communities are comprised of two main groups of people: those of Indian Zoroastrian background, who are known as [[Parsis]] (or Parsees), and those of Iranian background.
==== In Greater Iran ====
Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in [[Yazd]], [[Kerman]] and [[Kermanshah]], where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from the usual [[Persian language|Persian]]. They call their language [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari]] (not to be confused with the [[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari of Afghanistan]]). Their language is also called ''Gabri'' or ''Behdinan'' (literally "Of the Good Religion"). Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, ''Yazdi'' or ''Kermani''. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically called [[Gabr|''Gabr''s]], originally without a pejorative connotation but in the present-day derogatorily applied to all non-Muslims.
There is some interest among Iranians, as well as people in various Central Asian countries such as [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]], in their ancient Zoroastrian heritage; some people in these countries take notice of their Zoroastrian past. At the instigation of the government of [[Tajikistan]], [[UNESCO]] declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th anniversary of Zoroastrian culture", with special events throughout the world.
==== In the Indian Subcontinent ====
{{main|Parsi}}
Following the fall of the [[Sassanid Empire]] in 651, many Zoroastrians migrated, and among them were several groups who ventured to [[Gujarat]], on the western shores of the [[Indian subcontinent]], where they finally settled. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the [[Parsi]]s. The year of arrival on the subcontinent cannot be precisely established and Parsi legend and tradition assigns various dates to the event.
On the Indian subcontinent, these Zoroastrians enjoyed tolerance and even admiration from other religious communities. From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society, partly due to the divisive strategy of [[British Empire|British colonialism]] which favored certain minorities. As such, Parsis are generally more affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most Anglicised and "Westernised" of the various minority groups. They have also played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the [[Tata]], [[Godrej]], and [[Wadia]] families.
==== Demographics ====
In 1996, the number of Zoroastrians worldwide was estimated to be "at most 200,000".<ref name="Melton_1996_837">{{harvnb|Melton|1996|p=837}}.</ref><ref name="cf_EliadeCouliano_1991_254">''cf.'' {{harvnb|Elidae|Couliano|1991|p=254}}.</ref> India's 2001 Census found 69,601 [[Parsi]] Zoroastrians. In [[Pakistan]] they number 5,000, mostly living in [[Karachi]]. [[Anglo America]] is thought to be home to 18,000–25,000 Zoroastrians of both [[South Asian]] and [[Iran]]ian background. Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely; the last census (1974) before the [[Iranian Revolution|revolution of 1979]] revealed 21,400 Zoroastrians.
Few, if any, adherents remain in the [[Central Asia]]n regions that were once considered the traditional stronghold of Zoroastrianism, i.e. [[Bactria]] (see also [[Balkh]]) which is in Northern Afghanistan, [[Sogdiana]], [[Margiana]], and other areas closest to Zoroaster's homeland (for the location of Zoroaster's homeland, see [[Zoroaster#Place]]).
In the Indian census of 2001, the Parsis numbered 69,601, representing about 0.006% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of [[Mumbai]] (previously known as Bombay). Due to a low birth rate and high rate of emigration, demographic trends project that by 2020 the Parsis will number only about 23,000 or 0.002% of the total population of India. The Parsis will then cease to be called a community and will be labelled a "tribe".
==== Noted Zoroastrians ====
:''For a list of Zoroastrians with articles, see [[List of Zoroastrians]] and [[:Category:Zoroastrians|Category:Zoroastrians]].''
Noted [[Parsi]]s include the pioneering Indian industrialist and philanthropist [[Jamshedji Tata]]; the industrialist and founder of Indian Civil aviation [[J. R. D. Tata]]; [[Indian independence movement|Indian political activists]] [[Pherozeshah Mehta]], [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] and [[Bhikaiji Cama]]; conductor [[Zubin Mehta]] and rock artist [[Freddie Mercury]] (Farrokh Bulsara); British actor and Film Producer [[Ray Panthaki]]; nuclear scientist [[Homi J. Bhabha]], the similarly named philosopher [[Homi Bhabha|Homi K. Bhabha]]; Field Marshal [[Sam Manekshaw]], author and screenwriter [[Sooni Taraporevala]] (of the films ''Salaam Bombay'' and ''Mississippi Masala''), authors [[Rohinton Mistry]] and [[Bapsi Sidhwa]]. Parsis famed for their philanthropy include [[Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy]] and the eponymous [[Cowasji Jehangir Readymoney]], both of whom were knighted for their munificence. The [[India]]n industrial families [[Tata family]], [[Godrej family]] and [[Wadia family]] are also of [[Parsi]] Zoroastrian background. Noted members of the more recently arrived [[Irani]] community include [[Bollywood]] director [[Ardeshir Irani]] and cricketer [[Ronnie Irani]]. Ronnie Screwvala, the noted film producer, owns UTV Motion Pictures.
Noted Iranian Zoroastrians include Dr. [[Farhang Mehr]], former deputy prime minister of [[Iran]], [[Boston University]] professor emeritus, longtime activist for religious freedom, and subject of the biography ''"Triumph Over Discrimination"'' by [[Lylah M. Alphonse]].
Notable converts to Zoroastrianism include Swedish artist and author [[Alexander Bard]].
== Bibliography ==
;References
{{reflist|3}}
;Works cited
* {{citation|editor-last=Black|editor-first=Matthew|editor2-last=Rowley|editor2-first=H. H.|title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible|year=1982|publisher=Nelson|location=New York|id=ISBN 0-415-05147-9}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=Textual sources for the study of Zoroastrianism|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester UP|year=1984|id=ISBN 0-226-06930-3}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World|location=London|publisher=William's Trust|year=1987}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=1979|id=ISBN 0-415-23903-6}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=The History of Zoroastrianism|volume=1|year=1975|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=ISBN 90-04-10474-7 (repr. 1996)}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=The History of Zoroastrianism|volume=2|year=1982|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=ISBN 90-04-06506-7 (repr. 1997)}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|chapter=Ahura Mazdā|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|year=1983|volume=1}} pages 684–687
* {{citation|last=Bulliet|first=Richard W.|title=Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History|year=1979|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard UP|id=ISBN 0-674-17035-0}}
* {{citation|last=Carroll|first=Warren H.|year=1985|title=Founding Of Christendom: History Of Christendom|volume=1|publisher=Illinois UP|location=Urbana|id=ISBN 0-931888-21-2 (repr. 2004)}}
* {{citation|last=Clark|first=Peter|title=Zoroastrianism. An Introduction to an Ancient Faith|location=Brighton|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=1998|id=ISBN 1-898723-78-8}}
* {{citation|last=Dhalla|first=Maneckji Nusservanji|publisher=OUP|location=New York|year=1938| title=History of Zoroastrianism}}
* {{citation|last=Duchesne-Guillemin|first=Jacques|chapter=Zoroastrianism|title=Encyclopedia Americana|location=Danbury|publisher=Grolier|year=1988|volume=29}} pages 813–815
* {{citation|last=Duchesne-Guillemin|first=Jacques|chapter=Zoroastrianism: Relation to other religions|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=Online|year=2006|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9207|accessdate=2006-05-31}}
* {{citation|last=Eliade|first=Mircea|last2=Couliano|first2=Ioan P.|year=1991|title=The Eliade Guide to World Religions|location=New York|publisher=Harper Collins}}
* {{citation|last=Kellens|first=Jean|chapter=Avesta|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=3|location=New York|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul}} pages 35-44.
* {{cite book|last=King|first=Charles William|year=1887|title=Gnostics and their Remains Ancient and Mediaeval|publisher=Bell & Daldy|location=London|id=ISBN 0-7661-0381-1 (repr. 1998)}}
* {{citation|last=Melton|first=J. Gordon|year=1996|title=Encyclopedia of American Religions|location=Detroit|publisher=Gale Research}}
* {{citation|last=Malandra|first=William W.|title=An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions|location=Minneapolis|publisher=U. Minnesota Press|year=1983|id=ISBN 0-8166-1114-9}}
* {{citation|last=Malandra|first=William W.|year=2005|chapter=Zoroastrianism: Historical Review|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=iranica.com|chapter-url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp9/ot_zorhist_20051007.html}}
* {{citation|last=Moulton|first=James Hope|title=The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Zoroastrianism|publisher=OUP|location=London|year=1917|id=1-564-59612-5 (repr. 1997)}}
* {{citation|last=Russell|first=James R.|title=Zoroastrianism in Armenia (Harvard Iranian Series)|location=Oxford|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1987|id=ISBN 0-674-96850-6}}
* {{citation|editor-last=Simpson|editor-first=John A.|editor2-last=Weiner|editor2-first=Edmund S.|chapter=Zoroastrianism|title=Oxford English Dictionary|location=London|publisher=Oxford UP|year=1989|edition=2nd|id=ISBN 0-19-861186-2}}
*{{citation|last=Stolze|first=Franz|title=Die Achaemenidischen und Sasanidischen Denkmäler und Inschriften von Persepolis, Istakhr, Pasargadae, Shâpûr|publisher=A. Asher|location=Berlin|year=1882}}
* {{citation|last=Zaehner|first=Robert Charles|title=The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism|location=London|publisher=Phoenix Press|year=1961|id=ISBN 1-84212-165-0}}
== Further reading ==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/ BBC World Service | Zoroastrianism]
* [http://www.avesta.org/ Avesta.org] contains further information on Zoroastrianism
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Zoroastrianism/ Dmoz.org | Religion and Spirituality | Zoroastrianism] a list of Zoroastrian organizations
{{DEFAULTSORT:%%key}}
[[Category:Zoroastrianism| ]]<!-- Note that the entire *Category*:Zoroastrianism is already a sub-cat under cat:Indo-European, cat:Eastern culture and various other categories.-->
[[Category:Monotheism]]
[[Category:CZ Live]]
[[Category:CZ Live]]
[[Category:Stub Articles]]
[[Category:Stub Articles]]
[[Category:Needs Workgroup]]
[[Category:Religion]]

Revision as of 09:28, 15 March 2008

This article is developed but not approved.
 Main Article
 Discussion
Related Articles  [?]
Bibliography  [?]
External Links  [?]
Citable Version  [?]
Catalogs [?]
Timelines [?]
Gallery [?]
 
https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Zoroastrianism&printable=yes
This editable, developed Main Article is subject to a disclaimer.

Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht), which acknowledges the presence of two deities, Ahura Mazda and Anghurya Manyu.

Retrieved from "https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Zoroastrianism&oldid=415150"