Religion
A religion is an apparently-universal human social phenomenon involving beliefs, values, practices, and identity. Scholars typically characterize religion as concerned with the supernatural; the sacred; or with subjects of ultimate concern (such as birth and death).
Some religions are implicit, and consist of inherited ancestral traditions (a "way of life"). Others are organized, in conscious contrast to alternatives within the wider society. We may also distinguish between personal religious beliefs and experiences, and those which may be socially prescribed.
The word "religion" may also be used to indicate a certain minimum level of spiritual independence. For example, Methodists generally do not describe Methodism as a "religion" in its own right, but as a denomination within the religion of Christianity. Sikhs, however, insist that they are a "religion," and not, for example, merely a sect of Hinduism (despite their many similarities).
The word "religion"
Debate over meaning and scope
Elements which are often associated with "religion" include:
- a distinctive worldview or belief-system
- group identity
- social institutions
- rituals
- rules or behavioral expectations
- a focus on the supernatural
However, there is no agreement as to which of these criteria ought to be the deciding ones in case of borderline cases. For example, textbooks on religion often include Confucianism, but its adherents often disagree, pointing to Confucius' reluctance to discuss the supernatural. Freemasonry claims not to be a religion (since members of any religion may join); however others consider its tradition of texts, rituals, ethics, and group solidarity to qualify it as religious. And for all its anti-religious rhetoric, Soviet Communism boasted "sacred" texts, condemned "heretics", revered founders, conducted rituals, and promoted an elaborate eschatological prophecy in the form of the future workers' utopia.
Finally, many traditional societies make no clear distinction between "religious" and "nonreligious" aspects of daily life. How are we to decide, for example, whether a particular people's understanding of their place in the cosmos qualifies as a belief to which they adhere (in this connection we might consider scientific worldviews prevailing in industrialized societies); or whether a custom or practice is best described under the heading of religious rules, or etiquette?
Organizing Religions
Organizing religions is a difficult task, as theologians differ on where the differences lie. For example, while "Christianity" describes a set of common beliefs in God, Jesus, and the afterlife, there are vast differences in the various churches of Christianity.
As an example, the Baptist faith, the Catholic Church, Mormonism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses all base their faith on the Bible, but take different views on such things as organization, the necessity of proselytization, the rituals that have to be observed to be a devout Christian, the will of God, and the nature of evil.
However, there are some common divisions that many scholars agree to:
"Dharmic religions". Includes the several Indic religions which conceive of their teachings in terms of dharma (a word variously meaning "religion" or "duty"): Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
"Abrahamic religions". This category includes the three religions which recognize Abraham as a part of their sacred histories: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Baha'i religion also fits this description, but is often overlooked on account of its small size.
"Monotheistic religions". Religious which affirm belief on one God include Zoroastrianism and the Abrahamic religions (listed above). Some strains of Hindu or ancient Egyptian religion arguably qualify. The concept becomes somewhat murky in view of the many theologies in which God or his equivalent boasts a heavenly retinue, or changes form.
"Tribal religions." Include a wide variety of small-scale religions found in pre-modern societies. "Shamanism" describes one common religious-specialist role within many such societies (but neither exhausts the categeory, nor is limited to it).
Major religions of the world
The question of which religions qualify as "major" is not always a straightforward one. If we decide to judge by population size, we would still be faced with the perhaps arbitrary choices of a cutoff figure (ten million? 100 million?) and definitional criteria (self-identification? attendance at worship services?). And this would still leave us with the uncomfortable conclusion that Judaism is less important than Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, or even Sikhism.
If we decide to consider the age of the religion as well, similar problems arise. Would a century suffice to render a religion venerable? A millennium? And how are we to compute age, in the case of uncertainty or disagreement? For example, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness could with some justification be traced back to the 1960's activity of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada; to the career of the fifteenth-century Bengali saint Caitanya; to the composition of the Bhagavadgita some two thousand years ago; or to the life of Krishna himself (if he in fact existed as a historical figure)?
Some religious movements are influential out of proportion to their size or age. An example would be the Quakers. And the Sandemanians are noteworthy mainly for being the church of Michael Faraday.
That said, here are the religions which are invariably included on the shortest of short-lists:
Judaism is the religion associated with the Hebrew Bible, including the "written and oral Torahs"; and with the "people of Israel" represented today by ethnic Jews. Its sacred history recognizes Abraham as its greatest ancestors; Moses as its greatest prophet and lawgiver; and David as its greatest king. From its sacred homeland of Israel, Judaism has been indelibly shaped by its history of exile, and experience of anti-Semitism. Major divisions include
- Orthodox Judaism
- Conservative Judaism
- Reform Judaism
Christianity recognizes Jesus Christ as its founder and object of worship. Its major divisions include
- The Oriental churches
- The Assyrian Church of the East
- The Armenian Apostolic Church
- The Coptic church
- Eastern Orthodox Christianity
- Roman Catholicism
- Protestantism
- Lutheranism
- Calvinism
- The Anglican Communion
- Evangelical Christianity
- Pentecostalism
- "Restoration" churches
- Mormonism
- Utah Mormonism
- Missouri Mormonism
- Adventism
- Jehovah's Witnesses
- Mormonism
Islam is
Hinduism encompasses a variety of Indian deity-cults (the most popular being those of Vishnu and Shiva) united through their shared veneration of the Vedas and other sacred texts. It is perhaps most crucially associated with a social
Buddhism is ultimately derived from the life and teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (c. [big dating problem here]. It may be divided (according to culture, geography, and the language of sacred texts) into South Asian Buddhism, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism, and East Asian Buddhism; or (according to thelogy) into Theravada and Mahayana branches. "Vajrayana" or "Tantric Buddhism" is a special subset of Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese religions include
Other religions
Neopaganism includes a variety of revivals of
"New Age") is a term that was coined to describe the modern trend of new religions which have a strong belief in the supernatural. Some religions strongly reject the label as it has been used derisively by scholars of other faiths, while some religions accept the label proudly. These religions are very diverse.