George Washington
George Washington (1732-1799) was the military leader of the American victory over Britain in the American Revolution and the first President of the United States of America (1789-1797).
Early Life
Ellis (2004) shows Washington was influenced by the East, where he picked up the deferential world of British patronage and hierarchy and curried favor from the well-connected Fairfax family, but failed to get a permanent commission in the British army. From the West came experiences on the Ohio frontier, where Washington carried out surveying expeditions and military campaigns against the French and Indians. Going to war instead of to college, Ellis concludes, scarred and immunized Washington against idealism.
American Revolution
Washington's path to revolution reflected the American ideology of [[Republicanism, U.S.|republicanism); indeed, it provides "an almost textbook example of the Radical Whig ideology that historians have made the central feature of scholarship on the American Revolution for the past forty years."[1] Personal experiences on multiple levels convinced Washington there was indeed a a British conspiracy to enslave the colonies, as he saw imperial policies constantly limiting and restricting his prized autonomy. In his quests for a commission in the Redcoat army, for western land, and for economic independence from British consignment merchants, Washington found himself losing out, becoming a helpless dependent.
As Ellis (2004) argues, the June 1775-March 1776 siege of Boston was the formative event in George Washington's development as a military and political leader, for it was there that he first responded to the logistical problems inherent to the American cause in the Revolutionary War with his trademark determination, leadership ability, and sound decisionmaking. He also, however, exhibited a stubborn, aloof, severe personality that "virtually precluded intimacy." Washington, dubbed "His Excellency" by the adoring American public, also became acquainted with many of his future staff members and lieutenants during this period.
Constitution
Long before most of his contemporaries, Washington realized that independence could not be guaranteed without a standing army and that a nation strong enough to defend itself and to control the West could not exist without a central taxing power and a competent executive authority. All of those things, he admitted. ran directly counter to anti-tax, anti-centralizing sentiments that animated the Revolution. But were necessary nonetheless, Washington insisted throughout the 1780s. Ellis (2004) concludes that Washington, succeeded in reconciling those contradictions and playing the difficult role of a semi-monarchical republican leader because he understood so well the proper use of power and could project "onto the national screen ... the same kind of controlling authority he had orchestrated within his own personality."[2]
First President
Surrounding himself with the best men and "leading by listening"[3], President Washington employed careful restraint in exercising executive power (to prevent a backlash against centralization), and practiced calculated postponement of potentially lethal issues such as foreign war or ending slavery.
Creating a republican government
Hmailtonian policies
Whiskey Rebellion, 1794
French Revolution
Washington had not travelled outside the U.S. (apart from a brief visit to Bermuda), and paid little attention to European afffairs. When the French Revolution led to war in 1793 between Britain (America's leading trading partner), and France (the old ally, with a treaty still in effect), Washington and his cabinet decided on a policy of neutrality.
Retirement and return: 1797-99
Family and personality
As Henriques (2006) stresses, Washington was driven by a lifelong quest for fame. He zealously guarded his reputation and took great care to ensure that he always acted properly and that he received due acknowledgement for his propriety. Washington prided himself on his honorable actions and was inordinately sensitive to criticism. Ellis (2004) stresses that Washington learned to discipline his emotions as an essential survival skill while facing dangers a young officer in the Seven Year's War. That capacity for self-control, outwardly manifested in his famous aloofness, served Washington well again during the Revolution not only by insulating him from criticism but also by enabling him to curb his ambitions sufficiently to give up power at the end of the war, thereby earning him the universally honorable reputation that he so ardently desired.
Washington died in 1799 from acute epiglottitis during an influenza epidem. Attending physicians could not agree whether his condition was cynanche, an inflammation of the throat that was believed to require powerful remedies, or something that would require less radical therapeutic interventions than those his physicians had prescribed.[4]
Slavery
Critics argue that Washington's status as a slaveholder, his treatment of his slaves, and his condoning of the institution of slavery besmirch his reputation as the "father of our country." Washington's stay at the President's House in Philadelphia was similarly colored by slavery - nine slaves resided both in the house and in adjacent slave quarters. As a slaveholder, Washington personally struggled to balance the moral injustice of the institution with harsh realities, such as the fact that his own slaves were intermarried with those of his wife, whom he could not legally free. In his will, Washington emancipated his 123 slaves and provided financial support for the elderly and vocational training for the young. He acted in part to remove the only stain on his carefully cultivated reputation.
Memory and memorials
Bibliography
Interpretations
- Marcus Cunliffe. Washington: Man and Monument (1958),
- Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (2004), by Pulitzer prize winner
- Peter R. Henriques. Realistic Visionary: A Portrait of George Washington. U of Virginia Press, 2006.
- Higginbotham, Don. George Washington: Uniting a Nation (2002)
Biographies
- Alden, John R. George Washington: A Biography (1984)
- Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1988)
- Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man (1974).
- Flexner, James Thomas. George Washington, 4 vols. (1965–1972).
- Freeman, Douglas Southall, George Washington, 7 vols. (1948–1957); Pulitzer prize; a one-volume condensed vrsion appeared in 1968
Military
- Alden, John Richard. A History of the American Revolution (1969).
- Buchanan, John. The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution (2004) 368 pgs. online edition
- Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing (2004), Pulitzer prize study of 1776-77
- Higginbotham, Don. George Washington and the American Military Tradition (1985);
- Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789 (1971). most analytical history of the war
- Ketchum, Richard M. Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton (1973)
- Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. Random House, 2005. 450 pp
- McCullough, David. 1776. Simon & Schuster, 2005. 386 pp.
- Reed, John F. Campaign to Valley Forge: July 1, 1777–December 19, 1777 (1965)
- Royster, Charles. A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783 (1979)
- Taaffe, Stephen R. The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778 (2003).
- Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution, 2 vols., 1952, a good narrative of all the major battles.
- Wrong, George M. Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence (1921) by a Canadian scholar online edition
- West Point Atlas
Political
=Specialty studies
- Morgan, Philip D. "'To Get Quit of Negroes': George Washington and Slavery. Journal of American Studies 2005 39(3): 403-429. Issn: 0021-8758
- Novak, Michael and Novak, Jana. Washington's God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country. 2006. 282 pp.
- Pogue, Dennis J. "George Washington: Slave Master." American History 2004 38(6): 52-61. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco, popular history
Primary sources
- Washington, George. The Papers of George Washington: Presidential Series Unibersity Press of Virginia. Latest volume is Vol. 12: January-May 1793. ed by Philander D. Chase, 2005. 708 pp.