Family history

Family History has two meanings, in social history and genealogy.

Social history

Family history is a a branch of Social history that focuses on kinship relationships, marriage, children, and memory and constructed pasts. Scholars publish the quarterly Journal of Family History since it was founded by historian Tamara Hareven in 1976. The April 2008 issue has articles on "Marriage, Social Status, and Family Succession in Medieval Korea," "Childhood and Adolescence in Early Modern Malta (1565-1632)," "Men and Women Fighting Side By Side: Examples From an English Town, 1653-1781," "Compassion and Indifference: The Attitude of the English Legal System," and "Landscapes of Remembrance: Home and Memory in the Nineteenth-Century Bürgertum." Modernization models are common, such as Steven Mintz's A Prison of Expectations: The Family in Victorian Culture (1983), which describes the effects of modernization in the 19th century on the structure and role of the family in Great Britain and the United States.

U.S. South

Southern family history has been a historiographical battleground. Scholars such as Vernon Burton, Michael Johnson, Willie Lee Rose, and Anne Firor Scott, emphasized the patriarchal nature of antebellum southern society, notably the persistent significance of fatherly authority, hierarchy, and deference. On the other hand Jane Turner Censer, Rhys Isaac, Jan Lewis, and Daniel Blake Smith offered a diametrically opposing view, stressing the role of republicanism, romanticism, and sentimentalism in creating marriage patterns emphasizing free choice and companionship and childrearing practices emphasizing autonomy in the decades preceding the Civil War. A central goal of many recent studies has been to reshape this debate by emphasizing southern distinctiveness while moving away from rigid, static conceptions of southern patriarchy. For example, Steven Stowe emphasized ritualistic struggles over authority, autonomy, and intimacy within the antebellum planter class, while Joan Cashin showed how migration to the southern frontier intensified masculine independence and diminished female power.

Legal history

The legal history of the family has taken many different interpetations of the same basic facts, such as a story of progress, in which a hierarchical, patriarchal conception of marriage gives way to a contractual, egalitarian conception; or as a story of decline, in which an individualistic, rights-centered legal discourse supplants an ideology of marital permanence. Some view marriage's legal history as the story of women's emergent rights—of the slow recognition of a wife's right to child custody, separate property and earnings, and an independent legal identity—or of a movement from permanence to easy divorce.

In the U.S. starting in the 1840s, women became active litigants, suing for support, custody of children, confirmation of separate property rights, divorce or separation, and protection from creditors. Furthermore, women's rights advocates and legal reformers demanded that separated wives receive an independent legal identity and a right to retain their earnings and custody of their children. By the 1850s, as a result of decisions by state courts, married women's property rights and earning statutes, and other legal and constitutional reforms, husbands' property rights in wives and children were increasingly contested. In the late 19th century, state judges reconstructed family law, elaborating new notions of "coercion," "consortium," and "marital privacy" as substitutes for older notions of coverture.

Genealogy

"Family history" also means tracing the names and relationships of a specific family or related group of families over the generations. It is usually called genealogy, although strictly genealogy is limited to the study of the ancestral history of people who share common ancestors at some point; family history can also include the study of the lineages of people who share a common surname, whether or not they are in any way related.

Why people are interested

In the past, people's interest in family history was often focused largely on lines of descent from royalty, nobility and the gentry. For example, those who wanted to have banners of arms might have to demonstrate their descent from the upper classes, and their might be official bodies - like the College of Arms in England - which had to vet the purported lineage before the right to bear arms was granted. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in England, Heralds of Arms would conduct "visitations" of counties to research and establish the ancestral lines of the upper classes. This semi-aristocratic focus continued for several centuries, and is reflected in nineteenth-century novels: for instance, the novels of Anthony Trollope often establish where leading characters think they are in the social order by describing (sometimes rather satirically) their ancestry. Research was often limited to little more than the production of family trees showing names and ranks.

In the United States there developed an interest in establish descent from the early European settlers or others who helped to create the nation.

During the twentieth century the focus broadened. By the end of the century family history became an interest for people from all backgrounds, and many nowadays seek not just to establish the bare lines of their ancestry but also to find out as much as they can about the lives their ancestors lived.

In some societies, such as the Maori, if people learn their genealogies as part of learning who they are. In the sagas of Iceland, setting out the genealogies of the leading protagonists is an important part of introducing them into the story, and helps to demonstrate the complex web of family interrelationships that was a feature of early Icelandic society.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes in baptism of the dead, and this leads members to undertake extensive family history research.

One Name Studies

A relatively recent area of research is the "one name study": this focuses on records of people who share the same surname but may not all share ancestors. Such studies flourish in England, where there is a relative abundance of records going back many centuries. Besides the information they yield on family histories, one-name studies can also give important evidence about geographical migration because they can enable historians to see the geographical distribution of a surname at different periods. In the United Kingdom the Guild of One-Name Studies (GOONS) brings together many of those involved in one-name studies.

Methods

The study of family history has become more systematic over the last few decades, in contrast to the position a few centuries ago when family traditions might be accepted with little question. Today guidance from family history societies, books and magazines has helped researchers learn the importance of selecting sources with care and, wherever possible, cross-checking data against other sources. Even official records are not always reliable, because of transcription and other errors, or conscious deception on the part of those supplying information to the authorities. A wise family historian will always be open to new evidence which casts doubt on previous conclusions.

Sources of information are may include:

• Knowledge of living members of the family (though some of this may not be entirely trustworthy)
• Family Bibles
• Records of births, marriages and deaths
• Wills and probate records
• Censuses
• Immigration records
• Passenger lists
• Trade, street and telephone directories
• Property and legal records
• Newspapers
• Social security, tax and other government records
• Records of the armed forces
• Diaries and letters
• Employment and apprenticeship records
• Charity records (for example of organisations helping the poor)
• Manorial records
• Previous family histories
• Information made available by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the International Genealogical Index and "vital records"

In the last few years DNA has become for some an important adjunct to the research tools available to family historians, and especially for one-name studies. By analysing samples of DNA from different people with a common surname connection, it is possible to obtain scientific evidence pointing to the likelihood or otherwise of their sharing a common ancestry.

Computers

The widespread ownership of personal computers has assisted the rise of family history as a popular interest.

• Specialist software makes it easy to store and retrieve information, and to print family trees and other reports. Gone are the days of elaborate card indexes.
• More and more original records have become available, free or commercially, on the internet, making research quicker, cheaper and easier, although it remains wise wherever possible to check data found on the internet against original paper records because of the risk of transcription errors.
• Computers, email and the internet make it easy for those with a common interest to share information and to find guidance and advice.

Standards

The US National Genealogical Society has produced a set of standards which are widely accepted:

Remembering always that they are engaged in a quest for truth, family history researchers consistently—

• record the source for each item of information they collect.
• test every hypothesis or theory against credible evidence, and reject those that are not supported by the evidence.
• seek original records, or reproduced images of them when there is reasonable assurance they have not been altered, as the basis for their research conclusions.
• use compilations, communications and published works, whether paper or electronic, primarily for their value as guides to locating the original records, or as contributions to the critical analysis of the evidence discussed in them.
• state something as a fact only when it is supported by convincing evidence, and identify the evidence when communicating the fact to others.
• limit with words like "probable" or "possible" any statement that is based on less than convincing evidence, and state the reasons for concluding that it is probable or possible.
• avoid misleading other researchers by either intentionally or carelessly distributing or publishing inaccurate information.
• state carefully and honestly the results of their own research, and acknowledge all use of other researchers’ work.
• recognize the collegial nature of genealogical research by making their work available to others through publication, or by placing copies in appropriate libraries or repositories, and by welcoming critical comment.
• consider with open minds new evidence or the comments of others on their work and the conclusions they have reached.

Family History Societies

A large number of Family History Societies now exist, including:

• National societies
• Societies with a more specific geographical focus - for those with a research interest in people in a particular area
• Societies for those researching members of a religion or religious denomination
• Societies for those researching people in a particular type of employment
• Societies for those interested in a particular surname

Libraries

The world's largest and most complete library for family history is the LDS Family History Library in Salt lake City, sponsored by the Mormons. Their theology encourages baptising ancestors, but the actual name muct be known. Other major research centers include the Newberry Library in Chicago, and the Ft. Wayne, Indiana, Public Library. Most state historical societies have research facilities as well.

Bibliography

Social history

Britain, U.S., canada

• Bardaglio, Peter W. Reconstructing the Household: Families, Sex, and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South. (1995). 355 pp.
• Bleser, Carol, ed. In Joy and in Sorrow: Women, Family, and Marriage in the Victorian South. (1991). 330 pp.
• Bradbury, Bettina, ed. Canadian Family History: Selected Readings. (1992).
• Basch, Norma. Framing American Divorce: From the Revolutionary Generation to the Victorians. (1999). 237 pp.
• Campbell, D'Ann. Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Public Era, (1984), World War II; covers housewives, nurses, Wacs, war-workers
• Coontz, Stephanie. The Social Origins of Private Life: A History of American Families, 1600-1900. (1989). 365 pp.
• Costin, Lela B.; Karger, Howard Jacob; and Stoesz, David. The Politics of Child Abuse in America. (1996). 194 pp.
• Foyster, Elizabeth. Marital Violence: An English Family History, 1660-1857. (2005). 282 pp.
• Gillis, John. For Better, For Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present (1985).
• Griswold, Robert L. Fatherhood in America: A History. (1993). 382 pp.
• Hartog, Hendrik. Man and Wife in America: A History. (2000) 408 pp. , legal history.
• Hunter, Jean E. and Mason, Paul T., eds. The American Family: Historical Perspectives. (1991). 211 pp.
• Laslett, Peter and Wall, Richard, eds. Household and Family in Past Time. (1972). * Macfarlane, Alan. Marriage and Love in England: Modes of Reproduction 1300-1840 (1987)
• McMillen, Sally G. Motherhood in the Old South: Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Infant Rearing. (1990). 237 pp.
• Mintz, Steven, and Susan Kellogg. Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (1988), 316pp; the standard scholarly history excerpt and text search
• Mintz, Steven. Huck's Raft: A History of American Childhood. (2004). 464 pp., the standard scholarly history excerpt and text search
• Mintz, Steven. "Teaching Family History: an Annotated Bibliography." Magazine of History 2001 15(4): 11-18. Issn: 0882-228x
• Mintz, Steven. A Prison of Expectations: The Family in Victorian Culture. (1983). 234 pp., focus on families of famous writers
• Pleck, Elizabeth. Domestic Tyranny: The Making of American Social Policy against Family Violence from Colonial Times to the Present. (1987). 273 pp.
• Regosin, Elizabeth. Freedom's Promise: Ex-Slave Families and Citizenship in the Age of Emancipation. (2002). 239 pp.
• Riley, Glenda. Building and Breaking Families in the American West. (1996). 204 pp.
• Riney-Kehrberg, Pamela. Childhood on the Farm: Work, Play, and Coming of Age in the Midwest. (2005). 300 pp
• Ruggles, Steven. Prolonged Connections: The Rise of the Extended Family in Nineteenth-Century England and America. (1987). 282 pp.
• Walvin, James. A Child's World: A Social History of English Childhood (1800-1914) (1982).
• Ward, Peter. Courtship, Love and Marriage in Nineteenth Century English Canada. (1990). 219 pp.
• Watts, Jim and Davis, Allen F. Generations: Your Family in Modern American History. (1974). 210 pp.

Europe

see also Annales School

• Adams, Julia. The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe. (2005). 235 pp.
• Copley, Antony. Sexual Moralities in France, 1780-1980: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce, and Homosexuality: an Essay on Moral Change. (1989). 283 pp.
• Darrow, Margaret H. Revolution in the House: Family, Class, and Inheritance in Southern France, 1775-1825. (1990). 279 pp.
• Evans, Richard J. and Lee, W. R., eds. The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany. (1981). 302 pp.
• Flandrin, Jean-Louis. Families in Former Times; Kinship, Household, and Sexuality. (1979). 265 pp on France
• Gager, Kristin Elizabeth. Blood Ties and Fictive Ties: Adoption and Family Life in Early Modern France. (1996). 197 pp.
• Habermas, Rebekka. Frauen und Männer des Bürgertums. Eine Familiengeschichte (1750-1850) [Women and men of the bourgeoisie: a family history, 1750-1850]. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000. 456 pp.
• Heuer, Jennifer Ngaire. The Family and the Nation: Gender and Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789-1830. (2005). 256 pp.
• Kaplan, Marion A. The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany. (1991). 351 pp.
• Koonz, Claudia. Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, Family Life, and Nazi Ideology, 1919-1945. (1986). 640 pp.
• Laslett, Peter and Wall, Richard, eds. Household and Family in Past Time.(1972)
• Nivre, Elisabeth Wåghäll. Women and Family in Early Modern German Literature. (2004). 221 pp.
• Ozment, Steven. Flesh and Spirit: Private Life in Early Modern Germany. (1999.) 348 pp.
• Segalen, Martine. Love and Power in the Peasant Family: Rural France in the Nineteenth Century. (1983). 206 pp.
• Traer, James F. Marriage and the Family in Eighteenth-Century France. (1980). 208 pp.
• Wheaton, Robert and Harven, Tamara K., eds. Family and Sexuality in French History. (1980)
• Woolf, Stuart, ed. Domestic Strategies: Work and Family in France and Italy, 1600-1800. (1991). 207 pp.

Asia

• Fuess, Harald. Divorce in Japan: Family, Gender, and the State, 1600-2000. (2004). 226 pp.
• Glushkova, Irina and Vora, Rajendra, ed. Home, Family, and Kinship in Maharashtra. (2000) 240 pp. India
• Hanley, Susan B. and Wolf, Arthur P., eds. Family and Population in East Asian History. (1985). 360 pp.
• Hareven, Tamara K. The Silk Weavers of Kyoto: Family and Work in a Changing Traditional Industry. (2002). 371 pp.
• Huang, Philip C. C. The Peasant Family and Rural Development in the Yangzi Delta, 1350-1988. (1990). 421 pp.
• Laslett, Peter and Wall, Richard, eds. Household and Family in Past Time. (1972).
• Waltner, Ann. Getting an Heir: Adoption and the Construction of Kinship in Late Imperical China. (1991). 226 pp.
• Yan, Yunxiang. Private Life under Socialism: Love, Intimacy, and Family Change in a Chinese Village, 1949-1999. (2003). 281 pp.

Genealogy

• Cerny, Johni and Elliot, Wendy. The Library: A Guide to the LDS Family History Library. (1988). 763 pp.
• Ching, Frank. Ancestors: 900 Years in the Life of a Chinese Family. (1988). 512 pp.
• Cole, Trafford R. Italian Genealogical Records: How to Use Italian Civil, Ecclesiastical & Other Records in Family History Research (1995) excerpt and text search
• Cruise, M. T. W. Guidelines For Ancestry Research With An Emphasis on African-American Genealogy (2007) excerpt and text search
• Herber, Mark. Ancestral Trails: The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History.' (2nd ed. 2006). 873 pp.
• Hey, David. Family History and Local History in England. (1987). 276 pp.
• Irvine, Sherry. Scottish Ancestry: Research Methods for Family Historians (2nd ed. 2003) excerpt and text search
• Moody, David. Scottish Family History. (1988). 219 pp
• Rose, Christine. Courthouse Research for Family Historians: Your Guide to Genealogical Treasures (2004)
• Smith, Jessie Carney. Ethnic Genealogy: A Research Guide (1983) excerpt and text search