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{{Image|Bundesarchiv Bild 183-W0409-300, Bertolt Brecht.jpg|left|250px|Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht.}}
'''Berthold Brecht''' (1898–1956) was a prolific German playwright and poet known especially for having written the ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' with [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]] & [[Kurt Weill]] and having a life-long collaboration with the composer [[Hanns Eisler]]. Influenced by [[Marxist]] thought, he wrote didactic ''[[Lehrstücke]]'' and became a leading theoretician of [[epic theater]] (which he called "dialectical theater") and the ''alienation effect''.


During the [[Nazi Germany]] period, Brecht fled his home country, first to Scandinavia, and during [[World War II]] to the United States, where he was surveilled by the [[FBI]].{{sfn|Willett|1990|pp=312–313}} After the war he was subpoenaed by the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. Returning to [[East Berlin]] after the war, he established the theater company [[Berliner Ensemble]] with his wife and long-time collaborator, actress [[Helene Weigel]].<ref>The introduction of this article draws on the following sources: {{harvtxt|Banham|1998|p=129}}; {{harvtxt|Bürger|1984|pp=87–92}}; {{harvtxt|Jameson|1998|pp=43–58}}; {{harvtxt|Kolocotroni|Goldman|Taxidou|1998|pp=465–466}}; {{harvtxt|Williams|1993|pp=277–290}}; {{harvtxt|Wright|1989|pp=68–89, 113–137}}.</ref>
== Life and career ==
=== Bavaria (1898–1924) ===
Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht (as a child known as Eugen) was born on 10 February 1898 in [[Augsburg]], Germany, the son of Berthold Friedrich Brecht (1869–1939) and his wife Sophie, née Brezing (1871–1920). Brecht's mother was a devout [[Protestant]] and his father a [[Roman Catholic]] (who had been persuaded to have a Protestant wedding). The modest house where he was born is today preserved as a Brecht Museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adk.de/de/archiv/gedenkstaetten/gedenkstaetten-brecht-weigel.htm|title=Brecht-Weigel-Gedenkstätte-Chausseestraße 125-10115|department= Berlin-Akademie der Künste – Akademie der Künste – Berlin}}</ref> His father worked for a paper mill, becoming its managing director in 1914.<ref name="lives">{{harvnb|Thomson|1994}}</ref> At Augsburg, his maternal grandparents lived in the neighbouring house. They were [[Pietists]] and his grandmother influenced Bertolt Brecht and his brother [[Walter Brecht|Walter]] considerably during their childhood.
Due to his grandmother's and his mother's influence, Brecht knew the Bible, a familiarity that would have a life-long effect on his writing. From his mother came the "dangerous image of the self-denying woman" that recurs in his drama.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomson|1994|pages=22–23}} See also {{harvnb|Smith|1991}}.</ref> Brecht's home life was comfortably middle class, despite what his occasional attempt to claim peasant origins implied.<ref>See Brecht's poem "Of Poor B.B." (first version, 1922), in Brecht (2000b, 107–108).</ref> At school in Augsburg he met [[Caspar Neher]], with whom he formed a life-long creative partnership. Neher designed many of the sets for Brecht's dramas and helped to forge the distinctive visual iconography of their [[epic theater]].
When Brecht was 16, [[World War I]] broke out. Initially enthusiastic, Brecht soon changed his mind on seeing his classmates "swallowed by the army".<ref name="lives"/> Brecht was nearly expelled from school in 1915 for writing an essay in response to the line ''[[Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]]'' from the Roman poet [[Horace]], calling it ''Zweckpropaganda'' ("cheap propaganda for a specific purpose") and arguing that only an empty-headed person could be persuaded to die for their country. His expulsion was only prevented by the intervention of Romuald Sauer, a priest who also served as a substitute teacher at Brecht's school.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hässler |editor1-first=Hans-Jürgen |editor2-last=von Heusinger |editor2-first=Christian |date=1989 |title=Kultur gegen Krieg, Wissenschaft für den Frieden |trans-title=Culture against War, Science for Peace |language=de |location=Würzburg, Germany |publisher=[[Königshausen & Neumann]] |isbn=978-3-88479-401-2}}</ref>
On his father's recommendation, Brecht sought to avoid being conscripted into the army by exploiting a loophole which allowed for medical students to be deferred. He subsequently registered for a medical course at [[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich|Munich University]], where he enrolled in 1917.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomson|1994|p=24}} and {{harvnb|Sacks|1994|p=xvii}}.</ref> There he studied drama with [[Arthur Kutscher]], who inspired in the young Brecht an admiration for the iconoclastic dramatist and [[cabaret]] star [[Frank Wedekind]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thomson|1994|p=24}}. In his ''[[Messingkauf Dialogues]]'', Brecht cites Wedekind, along with [[Georg Büchner|Büchner]] and [[Karl Valentin|Valentin]], as his "chief influences" in his early years: "he", Brecht writes of himself in the third person, "also saw the writer ''Wedekind'' performing his own works in a style which he had developed in cabaret. Wedekind had worked as a [[ballad]] singer; he accompanied himself on the lute." {{harv|Brecht|1965|p=69}}. [[Arthur Kutscher|Kutscher]] was "bitterly critical" of Brecht's own early dramatic writings (Willet and Manheim 1970, vii).</ref>
From July 1916, Brecht's newspaper articles began appearing under the new name "Bert Brecht" (his first theater criticism for the ''[[Der Volkswille (Augsburg, 1919)|Augsburger Volkswille]]'' appeared in October 1919).<ref>{{harvnb|Thomson|1994|p=24}} and {{harvnb|Willett|1967|p=17}}</ref> Brecht was [[Conscription|drafted]] into military service in the autumn of 1918, only to be posted back to Augsburg as a medical orderly in a military [[Sexual health clinic|VD clinic]]; the war ended a month later.<ref name="lives"/>
In July 1919, Brecht and [[Paula Banholzer]] (who had begun a relationship in 1917) had a son, Frank. In 1920 Brecht's mother died.{{sfn|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=vii}} Frank died in 1943, fighting for Nazi Germany on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].
Some time in either 1920 or 1921, Brecht took a small part in the political cabaret of the Munich comedian [[Karl Valentin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sacks|1994|p=xx}} and {{harvnb|McDowell|1977}}.</ref> Brecht's diaries for the next few years record numerous visits to see Valentin perform.<ref name=McDowell2000>{{harvnb|McDowell|2000}}</ref> Brecht compared Valentin to [[Charlie Chaplin]], for his "virtually complete rejection of mimicry and cheap psychology".{{sfn|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=x}} Writing in his ''[[Messingkauf Dialogues]]'' years later, Brecht identified Valentin, along with Wedekind and [[Georg Büchner|Büchner]], as his "chief influences" at that time:
{{Blockquote|But the man he learnt most from was the clown ''Valentin'', who performed in a beer-hall. He did short sketches in which he played refractory employees, orchestral musicians or photographers, who hated their employers and made them look ridiculous. The employer was played by his partner, Liesl Karlstadt, a popular woman comedian who used to pad herself out and speak in a deep bass voice.{{sfn|Brecht|1965|pp=69–70}}}}
Brecht's first full-length play, ''[[Baal (play)|Baal]]'' (written 1918), arose in response to an argument in one of Kutscher's drama seminars, initiating a trend that persisted throughout his career of creative activity that was generated by a desire to counter another work (both others' and his own, as his many adaptations and re-writes attest). "Anyone can be creative," he quipped, "it's rewriting other people that's a challenge."<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Thomson|1994|p=25}}.</ref> Brecht completed his second major play, ''[[Drums in the Night]]'', in February 1919.
Between November 1921 and April 1922 Brecht made acquaintance with many influential people in the Berlin cultural scene. Amongst them was the playwright [[Arnolt Bronnen]] with whom he established a joint venture, the Arnolt Bronnen / Bertolt Brecht Company. Brecht changed the spelling of his first name to Bertolt to rhyme with Arnolt.
In 1922 while still living in Munich, Brecht came to the attention of an influential Berlin critic, [[Herbert Ihering]]: "At 24 the writer Bert Brecht has changed Germany's literary complexion overnight"—he enthused in his review of Brecht's first play to be produced, ''Drums in the Night''—"[he] has given our time a new tone, a new melody, a new vision. [...] It is a language you can feel on your tongue, in your gums, your ear, your spinal column."<ref>Herbert Ihering's review for ''[[Drums in the Night]]'' in the ''[[Berliner Börsen-Courier]]'' on 5 October 1922. Quoted in {{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|pp=viii–ix}}.</ref> In November it was announced that Brecht had been awarded the prestigious [[Kleist Prize]] (intended for unestablished writers and probably Germany's most significant literary award, until it was abolished in 1932) for his first three plays (''Baal'', ''Drums in the Night'', and ''[[In the Jungle of Cities|In the Jungle]]'', although at that point only ''Drums'' had been produced).<ref>See {{harvnb|Thomson|Sacks|1994|p=50}} and {{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|pp=viii–ix}}.</ref> The citation for the award insisted that: "[Brecht's] language is vivid without being deliberately poetic, symbolical without being over literary. Brecht is a dramatist because his language is felt physically and in the round."<ref>Herbert Ihering, quoted in {{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=ix}}.</ref> That year he married the Viennese opera singer [[Marianne Zoff]]. Their daughter, [[Hanne Hiob]], born in March 1923, was a successful German actress.<ref name="lives" />
In 1923, Brecht wrote a scenario for what was to become a short [[slapstick]] film, ''[[Mysteries of a Barbershop]]'', directed by [[Erich Engel]] and starring Karl Valentin.{{sfn|McDowell|1977}} Despite a lack of success at the time, its experimental inventiveness and the subsequent success of many of its contributors have meant that it is now considered one of the most important films in [[Cinema of Germany|German film history]].{{sfn|Culbert|1995|p={{page needed|date=May 2022}}}} In May of that year, Brecht's ''In the Jungle'' premiered in Munich, also directed by Engel. Opening night proved to be a "scandal"—a phenomenon that would characterize many of his later productions during the [[Weimar Republic]]—in which [[Nazism|Nazis]] blew whistles and threw stink bombs at the actors on the stage.<ref name=McDowell2000/>
In 1924 Brecht worked with the novelist and playwright [[Lion Feuchtwanger]] (whom he had met in 1919) on an adaptation of [[Christopher Marlowe]]'s ''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' that proved to be a milestone in Brecht's early theatrical and dramaturgical development.{{sfn|Thomson|1994|p=26–27}}{{sfn|Meech|1994|pp=54–55}} Brecht's ''[[The Life of Edward II of England|Edward II]]'' constituted his first attempt at collaborative writing and was the first of many classic texts he was to adapt. As his first solo directorial début, he later credited it as the germ of his conception of "[[epic theater]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Meech|1994|pp=54–55}} and {{harvnb|Benjamin|1983|p=115}}. See the article on ''[[The Life of Edward II of England|Edward II]]'' for details of Brecht's germinal 'epic' ideas and techniques in this production.</ref> That September, a job as assistant [[Dramaturge|dramaturg]] at [[Max Reinhardt]]'s [[Deutsches Theater (Berlin)|Deutsches Theater]]—at the time one of the leading three or four theaters in the world—brought him to Berlin.<ref>Brecht was recommended for the job by [[Erich Engel]]; [[Carl Zuckmayer]] was to join Brecht in the position. See {{harvnb|Sacks|1994|p=xviii}}, {{harvnb|Willett|1967|p=145}}, and {{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=vii}}.</ref>
=== Weimar Republic Berlin (1925–1933) ===
In 1923 Brecht's marriage to Zoff began to break down (though they did not divorce until 1927).<ref>{{harvnb|Ewen|1967|p=159}} and {{harvnb|Völker|1976|p=65}}</ref> Brecht had become involved with both [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]] and Helene Weigel.{{sfn|Thomson|1994|p=28}} Brecht and Weigel's son, [[Stefan Brecht|Stefan]], was born in October 1924.<ref>{{harvnb|Hayman|1983|p=104}} and {{harvnb|Völker|1976|p=108}}</ref>
In his role as dramaturg, Brecht had much to stimulate him but little work of his own.<ref>According to Willett, Brecht was disgruntled with the [[Deutsches Theater (Berlin)|Deutsches Theater]] at not being given a Shakespeare production to direct. At the end of the 1924–1925 season, both his and [[Carl Zuckmayer]]'s (his fellow dramaturg) contracts were not renewed. {{harv|Willett|1967|p=145}}. Zuckmayer relates how: "Brecht seldom turned up there; with his flapping leather jacket he looked like a cross between a lorry driver and a Jesuit seminarist. Roughly speaking, what he wanted was to take over complete control; the season's programme must be regulated entirely according to his theories, and the stage be rechristened 'epic smoke theater', it being his view that people might actually be disposed to think if they were allowed to smoke at the same time. As this was refused him he confined himself to coming and drawing his pay." (Quoted by {{harvnb|Willett|1967|p=145}}.</ref> Reinhardt staged [[George Bernard Shaw|Shaw]]'s ''[[Saint Joan (play)|Saint Joan]]'', [[Carlo Goldoni|Goldoni]]'s ''[[Servant of Two Masters]]'' (with the improvisational approach of the ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'' in which the actors chatted with the prompter about their roles), and [[Luigi Pirandello|Pirandello]]'s ''[[Six Characters in Search of an Author]]'' in his group of Berlin theaters.{{sfn|Willett|1967|p=145}} A new version of Brecht's third play, now entitled ''[[In the Jungle of Cities|Jungle: Decline of a Family]]'', opened at the Deutsches Theater in October 1924, but was not a success.{{sfn|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=viii}}
{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quote=<poem>In the asphalt city I'm at home. From the very start
Provided with every last sacrament:
With newspapers. And tobacco. And brandy
To the end mistrustful, lazy and content.</poem>
|source=Bertolt Brecht, "Of Poor BB"|salign = right}}
At this time Brecht revised his important "transitional poem", "Of Poor BB".<ref>Willett and Manheim point to the significance of this poem as a marker of the shift in Brecht's work towards "a much more urban, industrialized flavour" {{harv|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=viii}}.</ref> In 1925, his publishers provided him with Elisabeth Hauptmann as an assistant for the completion of his collection of poems, ''Devotions for the Home'' (''Hauspostille'', eventually published in January 1927). She continued to work with him after the publisher's commission ran out.{{sfn|Willett|Manheim|1970|pp=viii, x}}
In 1925 in [[Mannheim]] the artistic exhibition ''Neue Sachlichkeit'' ("[[New Objectivity]]") had given its name to the new post-[[Expressionism|Expressionist]] movement in the German arts. With little to do at the Deutsches Theater, Brecht began to develop his ''[[Man Equals Man]]'' project, which was to become the first product of "the 'Brecht collective'—that shifting group of friends and collaborators on whom he henceforward depended."<ref>{{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=viii}}; Joel Schechter writes: "The subjugation of an individual to that of a collective was endorsed by the affirmations of comedy, and by the decision of the coauthors of ''[[Man Equals Man|Man is Man]]'' ([[Emil Burri]], [[Slatan Dudow]], [[Caspar Neher]], Bernhard Reich, [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]]) to call themselves 'The Brecht Collective'."{{harvnb|Schechter|1994|p=74}}</ref> This collaborative approach to artistic production, together with aspects of Brecht's writing and style of theatrical production, mark Brecht's work from this period as part of the ''Neue Sachlichkeit'' movement.{{sfn|Willett|1978}} The collective's work "mirrored the artistic climate of the middle 1920s", [[John Willett|Willett]] and [[Ralph Manheim|Manheim]] argue:
<blockquote>with their attitude of ''Neue Sachlichkeit'' (or New Matter-of-Factness), their stressing of the collectivity and downplaying of the individual, and their new cult of [[Anglo-Saxon]] imagery and sport. Together the "collective" would go to fights, not only absorbing their terminology and ethos (which permeates ''Man Equals Man'') but also drawing those conclusions for the theater as a whole which Brecht set down in his theoretical essay "Emphasis on Sport" and tried to realise by means of the harsh lighting, the boxing-ring stage and other anti-illusionistic devices that henceforward appeared in his own productions.{{sfn|Willett|Manheim|1970|pp=viii–ix}}</blockquote>
In 1925, Brecht also saw two films that had a significant influence on him: [[Charlie Chaplin|Chaplin]]'s ''[[The Gold Rush]]'' and [[Sergei Eisenstein|Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Battleship Potemkin]]''.{{sfn|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=xxxiii}} Brecht had compared [[Karl Valentin|Valentin]] to Chaplin, and the two of them provided models for Galy Gay in ''Man Equals Man''.{{sfn|Schechter|1994|p=68}} Brecht later wrote that Chaplin "would in many ways come closer to the [[Demonstration (acting)|epic]] than to the dramatic theater's requirements."{{sfn|Brecht|1964|p=56}} They met several times during Brecht's time in the United States, and discussed Chaplin's ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' project, which it is possible Brecht influenced.{{sfn|Schechter|1994|p=72}}
In 1926 a series of short stories was published under Brecht's name, though Hauptmann was closely associated with writing them.{{sfn|Sacks|1994|p=xviii}} Following the production of ''Man Equals Man'' in Darmstadt that year, Brecht began studying [[Marxism]] and socialism in earnest, under the supervision of Hauptmann.{{sfn|Thomson|1994|pp=28–29}} "When I read [[Karl Marx|Marx]]'s ''[[Das Kapital|Capital]]''", a note by Brecht reveals, "I understood my plays." Marx was, it continues, "the only spectator for my plays I'd ever come across."{{sfn|Brecht|1964|pp=23–24}} Inspired by the developments in [[USSR]], Brecht wrote a number of [[agitprop]] plays, praising the [[bolshevik]] [[Soviet collectivism|collectivism]] (replaceability of each member of the collective in ''Man Equals Man'') and the [[Red Terror]] ([[The Decision (play)|''The Decision'']]).{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}
{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=25%|quote=For us, man portrayed on the stage is significant as a social function. It is not his relationship to himself, nor his relationship to God, but his relationship to society which is central. Whenever he appears, his class or social stratum appears with him. His moral, spiritual or sexual conflicts are conflicts with society.
|source=[[Erwin Piscator]], 1929.<ref>[[Erwin Piscator]], "Basic Principles of a Sociological Drama" in {{harvnb|Kolocotroni|Goldman|Taxidou|1998|p=243}}.</ref>|salign=right}}
In 1927 Brecht became part of the "[[Dramaturge|dramaturgical]] collective" of [[Erwin Piscator]]'s first company, which was designed to tackle the problem of finding new plays for its "epic, political, confrontational, documentary theater".<ref>{{harvnb|Willett|1998|p=103}} and {{harvnb|Willett|1978|p=72}}. In his book ''The Political Theater'', Piscator wrote: "Perhaps my whole style of directing is a direct result of the total lack of suitable plays. It would certainly not have taken so dominant form if adequate plays had been on hand when I started" (1929, 185).</ref> Brecht collaborated with Piscator during the period of the latter's landmark productions, ''[[Hoppla, We're Alive!]]'' by [[Ernst Toller|Toller]], ''Rasputin'', ''[[The Good Soldier Švejk|The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik]]'', and ''Konjunktur'' by [[Léo Lania|Lania]].{{sfn|Willett|1978|p=74}} Brecht's most significant contribution was to the adaptation of the unfinished episodic comic novel ''Schweik'', which he later described as a "montage from the novel".<ref>See Brecht's ''Journal'' entry for 24 June 1943. Brecht claimed to have written the adaptation (in his ''Journal'' entry), but Piscator contested that; the manuscript bears the names "Brecht, [Felix] Gasbarra, [[Erwin Piscator|Piscator]], [[George Grosz|G. Grosz]]" in Brecht's handwriting {{harv|Willett|1978|p=110}}. See also {{harvnb|Willett|1978|pp=90–95}}. Brecht wrote a sequel to the novel in 1943, ''[[Schweik in the Second World War]]''.</ref> The Piscator productions influenced Brecht's ideas about staging and design, and alerted him to the radical potentials offered to the "[[Non-Aristotelian drama|epic]]" playwright by the development of stage technology (particularly projections).<ref>{{harvnb|Willett|1998|p=104}}. In relation to his innovations in the use of theater technology, Piscator wrote: "technical innovations were never an end in themselves for me. Any means I have used or am currently in the process of using were designed to elevate the events on the stage onto a [[Historicization|historical plane]] and not just to enlarge the technical range of the stage machinery. My technical devices had been developed to cover up the deficiencies of the dramatists' products" ("Basic Principles of a Sociological Drama" [1929]; in {{harvnb|Kolocotroni|Goldman|Taxidou|1998|p=243}}).</ref> What Brecht took from Piscator "is fairly plain, and he acknowledged it" Willett suggests:
<blockquote>The emphasis on Reason and didacticism, the sense that the new subject matter demanded a [[Non-Aristotelian drama|new dramatic form]], the use of songs to [[Interruptions (epic theater)|interrupt]] and comment: all these are found in his notes and essays of the 1920s, and he bolstered them by citing such Piscatorial examples as the step-by-step narrative technique of ''Schweik'' and the oil interests handled in ''Konjunktur'' ('Petroleum resists the five-act form').<ref>{{harvnb|Willett|1978|pp=109–110}}. The similarities between Brecht's and Piscator's theoretical formulations from the time indicate that the two agreed on fundamentals; compare Piscator's summation of the achievements of his first company (1929), which follows, with Brecht's [[The Modern Theater Is the Epic Theater|''Mahagonny'' Notes]] (1930): "In lieu of private themes we had generalisation, in lieu of what was special the typical, in lieu of accident causality. Decorativeness gave way to constructedness, Reason was put on a par with Emotion, while sensuality was replaced by didacticism and fantasy by documentary reality." From a speech given by Piscator on 25 March 1929, and reproduced in ''Schriften 2'' p.&nbsp;50; quoted by {{harvnb|Willett|1978|p=107}}. See also {{harvnb|Willett|1998|pp=104–105}}.</ref></blockquote>
Brecht was struggling at the time with the question of how to dramatize the complex economic relationships of modern capitalism in his unfinished project ''Joe P. Fleischhacker'' (which Piscator's theater announced in its programme for the 1927–28 season). It wasn't until his ''[[Saint Joan of the Stockyards]]'' (written between 1929 and 1931) that Brecht solved it.{{sfn|Willett|1998|pp=104–105}} In 1928 he discussed with Piscator plans to stage [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' and Brecht's own ''[[Drums in the Night]]'', but the productions did not materialize.{{sfn|Willett|1978|p=76}}
The year 1927 also saw the first collaboration between Brecht and the young composer [[Kurt Weill]].<ref>The two first met in March 1927, after Weill had written a critical introduction to the broadcast on Berlin Radio of an adaptation of Brecht's ''[[Man Equals Man]]''. When they met, Brecht was 29 years old and Weill was 27. Brecht had experience of writing songs and had performed his own with tunes he had composed; at the time he was also married to an opera singer (Zoff). Weill had collaborated with [[Georg Kaiser]], one of the few [[Expressionism|Expressionist]] playwrights that Brecht admired; he was married to the actress [[Lotte Lenya]] {{harv|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=xv}}.</ref> Together they began to develop Brecht's ''[[Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny|Mahagonny]]'' project, along thematic lines of the biblical [[Sodom and Gomorrah|Cities of the Plain]] but rendered in terms of the ''[[New Objectivity|Neue Sachlichkeit]]'''s ''Amerikanismus'', which had informed Brecht's previous work.<ref>Willet and Manheim (1979, xv–xviii). In Munich in 1924 Brecht had begun referring to some of the stranger aspects of life in post-[[Beer Hall Putsch|putsch]] Bavaria under the codename "Mahagonny". The ''Amerikanismus'' imagery appears in his first three "Mahagonny Songs", with their Wild West references. With that, however, the project stalled for two and a half years. With Hauptmann, who wrote the two English-language "Mahagonny Songs", Brecht had begun work on an opera to be called ''Sodom and Gomorrah'' or ''The Man from Manhattan'' and a radio play called ''The Flood'' or 'The Collapse of Miami, the Paradise City', both of which came to underlie the new scheme with Weill. See {{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|pp=xv–xvi}}. The influence of ''Amerikanismus'' is most clearly discernible in Brecht's ''[[In the Jungle of Cities]]''.</ref> They produced ''[[Mahagonny-Songspiel|The Little Mahagonny]]'' for a music festival in July, as what Weill called a "stylistic exercise" in preparation for the large-scale piece. From that point on [[Caspar Neher]] became an integral part of the collaborative effort, with words, music and visuals conceived in relation to one another from the start.<ref>In this respect, the creative process for ''[[Mahagonny]]'' was quite different from ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'', with the former being ''durchkomponiert'' or set to music right through, whereas on the latter Weill was brought at a late stage to set the songs. See {{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=xv}}.</ref> The model for their mutual articulation lay in Brecht's newly formulated principle of the "[[separation of the elements]]", which he first outlined in "[[The Modern Theater Is the Epic Theater]]" (1930). The principle, a variety of [[Soviet montage theory|montage]], proposed by-passing the "great struggle for supremacy between words, music and production" as Brecht put it, by showing each as self-contained, independent works of art that [[Gestus|adopt attitudes]] towards one another.<ref>{{harvnb|Willett|Manheim|1970|p=xvii}} and {{harvnb|Brecht|1964|pp=37–38}}.</ref>
In 1930 Brecht married Weigel; their daughter Barbara Brecht was born soon after the wedding.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://movies.nytimes.com/person/642308/Barbara-Brecht-Schall|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217020432/http://movies.nytimes.com/person/642308/Barbara-Brecht-Schall|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 February 2012|department=Movies & TV Dept.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2012|title=Barbara Brecht-Schall&nbsp;– About This Person|access-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> She also became an actress and would later share the [[copyright]]s of Brecht's work with her siblings.
Brecht formed a writing collective which became prolific and very influential. [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]], Margarete Steffin, Emil Burri, [[Ruth Berlau]] and others worked with Brecht and produced the multiple [[Lehrstücke|teaching plays]], which attempted to create a new [[dramaturgy]] for participants rather than passive audiences. These addressed themselves to the massive worker arts organisation that existed in Germany and Austria in the 1920s. So did Brecht's first great play, ''[[Saint Joan of the Stockyards]]'', which attempts to portray the drama in financial transactions.
This collective adapted [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'', with Brecht's lyrics set to music by [[Kurt Weill]]. Retitled ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' (''Die Dreigroschenoper'') it was the biggest hit in Berlin of the 1920s and a renewing influence on the musical worldwide. One of its most famous lines underscored the hypocrisy of conventional morality imposed by the Church, working in conjunction with the established order, in the face of working-class hunger and deprivation:
{|
|<poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Erst kommt das Fressen
Dann kommt die Moral.</poem>
|<poem style="margin-left: 1em;">First the grub (lit. "eating like animals, gorging")
Then the morality.</poem>
|}
The success of ''The Threepenny Opera'' was followed by the quickly thrown together ''Happy End''. It was a personal and a commercial failure. At the time the book was purported to be by the mysterious Dorothy Lane (now known to be Elisabeth Hauptmann, Brecht's secretary and close collaborator). Brecht only claimed authorship of the song texts. Brecht would later use elements of ''Happy End'' as the germ for his ''Saint Joan of the Stockyards'', a play that would never see the stage in Brecht's lifetime. ''Happy End'''s score by Weill produced many Brecht/Weill hits like "Der Bilbao-Song" and "Surabaya-Jonny".
The masterpiece of the Brecht/Weill collaborations, ''[[Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny]]'' (''Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny''), caused an uproar when it premiered in 1930 in Leipzig, with Nazis in the audience protesting. The ''Mahagonny'' opera would premier later in Berlin in 1931 as a triumphant sensation.
Brecht spent the last years of the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar-era]] (1930–1933) in Berlin working with his "collective" on the ''Lehrstücke''. These were a group of plays driven by morals, music and Brecht's budding epic theater. The ''Lehrstücke'' often aimed at educating workers on Socialist issues. ''[[The Decision (play)|The Measures Taken]]'' (''Die Massnahme'') was scored by [[Hanns Eisler]]. In addition, Brecht worked on a script for a semi-documentary feature film about the human impact of mass unemployment, ''[[Kuhle Wampe]]'' (1932), which was directed by [[Slatan Dudow]]. This striking film is notable for its subversive humour, outstanding [[cinematography]] by [[Günther Krampf]], and Hanns Eisler's dynamic musical contribution. It still provides a vivid insight into Berlin during the last years of the [[Weimar Republic]].
=== Nazi Germany and World War II (1933–1945) ===
{{Quote box
|bgcolor = #c6dbf7
|quote = Unhappy the land where heroes are needed.
|source = [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], in Brecht's ''[[Life of Galileo]]'' ([[1943 in literature#New drama|1943]])
|salign = right
}}
Fearing persecution, Brecht left [[Nazi Germany]] in February 1933, just after [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] took power. After brief spells in Prague, Zurich and Paris, he and Weigel accepted an invitation from journalist and author [[Karin Michaëlis]] to move to Denmark. The family first stayed with Karin Michaëlis at her house on the small island of [[Thurø]] close to the island of [[Funen]]. They later bought their own house in [[Svendborg]] on Funen. This house located at Skovsbo Strand 8 in Svendborg became the residence of the Brecht family for the next six years, where they often received guests including [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Hanns Eisler]] and [[Ruth Berlau]]. During this period Brecht also travelled frequently to Copenhagen, Paris, Moscow, New York and London for various projects and collaborations.
When war seemed imminent in April 1939, he moved to [[Stockholm]], Sweden, where he remained for a year.<ref>german.wisc.edu</ref> After Hitler invaded [[Norway]] and Denmark, Brecht left Sweden for [[Helsinki]], Finland,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/art-2000004648415.html|title=Bertolt Brecht asui maanpakolaisvuosinaan Kuhankeittäjän korttelissa|date=26 April 2009|website=Helsingin Sanomat}}</ref> where he lived and waited for his visa for the United States until 3 May 1941.<ref name="german.wisc.edu">{{Cite web|url=http://www.brechtsociety.org/brecht_chronology|title=International Brecht Society – Brecht Chronology|website=www.brechtsociety.org}}</ref> During this time he wrote the play ''[[Mr Puntila and his Man Matti]]'' (''Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti'') with [[Hella Wuolijoki]], with whom he lived in {{Interlanguage link|Marlebäck|de}}.
During the war years, Brecht became a prominent writer of the [[Exilliteratur]].<ref name="Exilliteratur">Exilliteratur.</ref> He expressed his opposition to the National Socialist and Fascist movements in his most famous plays: ''[[Life of Galileo]]'', ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'', ''[[The Good Person of Szechwan]]'', ''[[The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui]]'', ''[[The Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'', ''[[Fear and Misery of the Third Reich]]'', and many others.
Brecht co-wrote the screenplay for the [[Fritz Lang]]-directed film ''[[Hangmen Also Die!]]'' which was loosely based on the 1942 assassination of [[Reinhard Heydrich]], the [[Nazism|Nazi]] Deputy Reich Protector of the German-occupied [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], [[Heinrich Himmler]]'s right-hand man in the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], and a chief architect of the [[Holocaust]], who was known as "The Hangman of Prague" ({{lang-de|der Henker von Prag}}). [[Hanns Eisler]] was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] for his musical score. The collaboration of three prominent refugees from Nazi Germany&nbsp;– Lang, Brecht and Eisler&nbsp;– is an example of the influence this generation of German exiles had on American culture.
''Hangmen Also Die!'' was Brecht's only script for a Hollywood film. The money he earned from writing the film enabled him to write ''[[The Visions of Simone Machard]]'', ''[[Schweik in the Second World War]]'' and an adaptation of [[John Webster|Webster]]'s ''[[The Duchess of Malfi (Brecht)|The Duchess of Malfi]]''.
Brecht's refusal to speak in support of [[Carola Neher]], who died in the [[GULAG]] after being arrested during [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge]], was harshly criticised by [[White émigré|Russian emigre]]s living throughout the West.<ref>{{Interlanguage link|Walter Held|de}}: "Stalins deutsche Opfer und die Volksfront", in the underground magazine ''Unser Wort'', Nr. 4/5, October 1938, pp. 7 ff.; {{Interlanguage link|Michael Rohrwasser|de}}, ''Der Stalinismus und die Renegaten. Die Literatur der Exkommunisten'', Stuttgart 1991, p. 163</ref>
=== Cold War and final years in East Germany (1945–1956) ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-24300-0049, Bertolt Brecht und Helene Weigel am 1. Mai.jpg|thumb|upright|Brecht and Weigel on the roof of the [[Berliner Ensemble]] during the [[International Workers' Day]] demonstrations in 1954]]
In the years of the [[Cold War]] and "[[Red Scare]]", Brecht was [[Hollywood blacklist|blacklisted]] by movie studio bosses and interrogated by the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]].<ref name=HUAC2>[[:File:Brecht HUAC hearing (1947-10-30).ogg|Brecht HUAC hearing]]</ref> Along with about 41 other Hollywood writers, directors, actors and producers, he was subpoenaed to appear before the HUAC in September 1947. Although he was one of 19 witnesses who declared that they would refuse to appear, Brecht eventually decided to testify. He later explained that he had followed the advice of attorneys and had not wanted to delay a planned trip to Europe. On 30 October 1947 Brecht testified that he had never been a member of the [[Communist Party]].<ref name=HUAC2/> He made wry jokes throughout the proceedings, punctuating his inability to speak English well with continuous references to the translators present, who transformed his German statements into English ones unintelligible to himself. HUAC vice-chairman [[Karl Mundt]] thanked Brecht for his co-operation. The remaining witnesses, the so-called [[Hollywood Ten]], refused to testify and were cited for contempt. Brecht's decision to appear before the committee led to criticism, including accusations of betrayal. The day after his testimony, on 31 October, Brecht returned to Europe.
He lived in [[Zürich|Zurich]] in Switzerland for a year. In February 1948 in [[Chur]], Brecht staged an adaptation of [[Sophocles]]' ''[[Antigone (Sophocles)|Antigone]]'', based on a translation by [[Friedrich Hölderlin|Hölderlin]]. It was published under the title ''Antigonemodell 1948'', accompanied by an essay on the importance of creating a "[[Non-Aristotelian drama|non-Aristotelian]]" form of theater.
In 1949 he moved to [[East Berlin]] and established his theater company there, the [[Berliner Ensemble]]. He retained his Austrian nationality (granted in 1950) and overseas bank accounts from which he received valuable hard currency remittances. The copyrights on his writings were held by a Swiss company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gradesaver.com/classicnotes/authors/about_bertolt_brecht.html|title=Bertolt Brecht Biography – List of Works, Study Guides & Essays|author=GradeSaver}}</ref>
Though he was never a member of the Communist Party, Brecht had been schooled in [[Marxism]] by the dissident communist [[Karl Korsch]]. Korsch's version of the [[Dialectic#Marxist dialectic|Marxist dialectic]] influenced Brecht greatly, both his aesthetic theory and theatrical practice. Brecht received the [[Stalin Peace Prize]] in 1954.<ref>{{cite news|title=St. Petersburg Times|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&dat=19541221&id=2Y4zAAAAIBAJ&pg=3712,12840|date=21 December 1954}}</ref> His proximity to Marxist thought made him controversial in Austria, where his plays were [[Brecht boycott in Vienna|boycotted]] by directors and not performed for more than ten years.
Brecht wrote very few plays in his final years in East Berlin, none of them as famous as his previous works. He dedicated himself to directing plays and developing the talents of the next generation of young directors and dramaturgs, such as Manfred Wekwerth, [[Benno Besson]] and [[Carl Weber (theater director)|Carl Weber]]. At this time he wrote some of his most famous poems, including the "Buckow Elegies".
At first Brecht apparently supported the measures taken by the East German government against the [[uprising of 1953 in East Germany]], which included the use of Soviet military force. In a letter from the day of the uprising to [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]] First Secretary [[Walter Ulbricht]], Brecht wrote that: "History will pay its respects to the revolutionary impatience of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. The great discussion [exchange] with the masses about the speed of socialist construction will lead to a viewing and safeguarding of the socialist achievements. At this moment I must assure you of my allegiance to the Socialist Unity Party of Germany."<ref>Letter published in the ''Neues Deutschland'', 21 June 1953.</ref>
[[File:Brechtgrave.jpg|thumb|Graves of Helene Weigel and Bertolt Brecht in the [[Dorotheenstadt Cemetery]]]]
Brecht's subsequent commentary on those events, however, offered a very different assessment—in one of the poems in the ''Elegies'', "[[Die Lösung]]" (The Solution), a disillusioned Brecht writes a few months later:
<blockquote><poem>
After the uprising of the 17th of June
The Secretary of the Writers Union
Had leaflets distributed in the [[Stalinallee]]
Stating that the people
Had forfeited the confidence of the government
And could win it back only
By increased work quotas.
Would it not be easier
In that case for the government
To dissolve the people
And elect another?<ref>Brecht (2000b, 440). The poem was first printed in the West-German newspaper ''[[Die Welt]]'' in 1959 and subsequently in the ''Buckow Elegies'' in the West 1964. It was first published in the GDR in 1969 after Helene Weigel had insisted on its inclusion in a collected edition of Brecht's works.</ref></poem></blockquote>Brecht's involvement in [[agitprop]] and lack of clear condemnation of purges resulted in criticism from many contemporaries who became disillusioned with communism earlier. [[Fritz J. Raddatz|Fritz Raddatz]] who knew Brecht for a long time described his attitude as "broken", "escaping the problem of Stalinism", ignoring his friends being murdered in the USSR, keeping silence during [[Show trials in the Soviet Union|show trials]] such as [[Slánský trial]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Röhl|first=Bettina|title=So macht Kommunismus Spaß: Ulrike Meinhof, Klaus Rainer Röhl und die Akte Konkret|year=2018|publisher=Wilhelm Heyne Verlag |isbn=978-3-453-60450-6|quote=They were all "broken", and by this I mean they avoided the problem of Stalinism, ran from it. Never mentioned their murdered friends and comrades, mostly in the USSR. Never engaged politically during Slansky Trial in Prague. "Broken" means they experienced the lie. I accuse them of keeping silent about the crimes of Stalin's regime. They put aside the whole complex of guilt that came with communism, real communism, or Stalinism to be precise. If that was not enough, they also wrote panegyrics praising Stalin, and they did that when they already knew about all these murders and atrocities.}}</ref>
After Khrushchev's "[[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|Secret Speech]]", the report read on the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which brought the crimes of Stalinism to the public, Brecht wrote poems critical of Stalin and his cult, unpublished during Brecht's lifetime. In the best-known of them, "The Tsar Spoke to Them" (''Der Zar hat mit ihnen gesprochen''),<ref>{{cite web | url=https://brechtguide.library.wisc.edu/catalog/04473 | title=The Tsar spoke to them . . . - Brecht's Works in English: A Bibliography }}</ref><ref name="st">https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46670/pdf/Mueller_Brecht_und_Stalin.pdf</ref> Brecht mocked the epithets applied to Stalin as "the honoured murderer of the people"<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fJYhfirnsM4C | isbn=978-0-521-78215-9 | title=Brecht's Poetry of Political Exile | date=2 November 2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> and compared his state terror policies with the ones of the Russian Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], famous for violent suppression of a peaceful demonstration on "[[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]" and later protests which resulted in the 1905 Russian Revolution.<ref name="st"/>
<blockquote><poem>the sun of the peoples burned its worshippers.
[...]
when young he was conscientious
when old he was cruel
young
he was not god
who becomes god
becomes dumb.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyL05LZg0TwC | isbn=978-0-8101-2393-9 | title=Bentley on Brecht | date=6 March 2008 | publisher=Northwestern University Press }}</ref></poem></blockquote>
=== Death ===
Brecht died on 14 August 1956<ref>{{Britannica|78614}}</ref> of a heart attack at the age of 58. He is buried in the [[Dorotheenstadt Cemetery]] on [[Chausseestraße]] in the [[Mitte]] neighbourhood of Berlin, overlooked by the residence he shared with Helene Weigel.
According to Stephen Parker, who reviewed Brecht's writings and unpublished medical records, Brecht contracted [[rheumatic fever]] as a child, which led to an [[enlarged heart]], followed by life-long chronic heart failure and [[Sydenham's chorea]]. A report of a [[radiograph]] taken of Brecht in 1951 describes a badly diseased heart, enlarged to the left with a protruding [[aortic knob]] and with seriously impaired pumping. Brecht's colleagues described him as being very nervous, and sometimes shaking his head or moving his hands erratically. This can be reasonably attributed to Sydenham's chorea, which is also associated with [[emotional lability]], personality changes, [[obsessive-compulsive]] behavior, and [[hyperactivity]], which matched Brecht's behavior. "What is remarkable," wrote Parker, "is his capacity to turn abject physical weakness into peerless artistic strength, [[arrhythmia]] into the rhythms of poetry, chorea into the choreography of drama."<ref>{{cite journal | title =Diagnosing Bertolt Brecht.| journal =Lancet| date =2 April 2011|last=Parker|first=Stephen| volume =377| issue =9772| pages =1146–7| url =http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2811%2960453-4/fulltext#| doi =10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60453-4| pmid =21465701| s2cid =40879512}}</ref>
== Theory and practice of theater ==
[[File:Cremer Brecht.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Brecht outside the Berliner Ensemble's theater in Berlin]]
Brecht developed the combined theory and practice of his "[[Epic theater]]" by synthesizing and extending the experiments of [[Erwin Piscator]] and [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]] to explore the theater as a [[Political drama|forum for political ideas]] and the creation of a critical aesthetics of [[dialectical materialism]].
Epic Theater proposed that a play should not cause the spectator to identify emotionally with the characters or action before him or her, but should instead provoke rational self-reflection and a critical view of the action on the stage. Brecht thought that the experience of a [[Climax (narrative)|climactic]] [[catharsis]] of emotion left an audience complacent. Instead, he wanted his audiences to adopt a critical perspective in order to recognize social injustice and exploitation and to be moved to go forth from the theater and effect change in the world outside.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Critical Response to Heidi M. Silcox's "What's Wrong with Alienation?"|last = Squiers|first = Anthony|date = 2015|journal = Philosophy and Literature|volume = 39|pages = 243–247|doi = 10.1353/phl.2015.0016|s2cid = 146205099}}</ref> For this purpose, Brecht employed the use of techniques that remind the spectator that the play is a [[Metatheater|representation of reality]] and not reality itself. By highlighting the constructed nature of the theatrical event, Brecht hoped to communicate that the audience's reality was equally constructed, and as such, was changeable.
Brecht's [[Modernism|modernist]] concern with drama-as-a-[[Medium specificity|medium]] led to his refinement of the "[[Non-Aristotelian drama|epic form]]" of the drama. This dramatic form is related to similar modernist innovations in other [[The arts|arts]], including the strategy of divergent chapters in [[James Joyce]]'s novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'', [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s evolution of a [[Constructivism (art)|constructivist]] "[[Soviet montage theory|montage]]" in the cinema, and [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]]'s introduction of [[Cubism|cubist]] "collage" in the visual arts.<ref>On these relationships, see "autonomization" in {{harvtxt|Jameson|1998|pp=43–58}} and "non-organic work of art" in {{harvtxt|Bürger|1984|pp=87–92}}. Willett observes: "With Brecht the same [[Soviet montage theory|montage]] technique spread to the drama, where the old [[Procrustes|Procrustean]] plot yielded to a more "[[Non-Aristotelian drama|epic]]" form of narrative better able to cope with wide-ranging modern socio-economic themes. That, at least, was how Brecht theoretically justified his choice of form, and from about 1929 on he began to interpret its penchant for "[[contradiction]]s", much as had [[Sergei Eisenstein]], in terms of the [[dialectic]]. It is fairly clear that in Brecht's case the practice came before the theory, for his actual composition of a play, with its switching around of scenes and characters, even the physical cutting up and sticking together of the typescript, shows that montage was the structural technique most natural to him. Like [[Jaroslav Hašek]] and Joyce he had not learnt this scissors-and-paste method from the Soviet cinema but picked it out of the air" {{harv|Willett|1978|p=110}}.</ref>
One of Brecht's most important principles was what he called the ''[[Verfremdungseffekt]]'' (translated as "defamiliarization effect", "distancing effect", or "estrangement effect", and often mistranslated as "alienation effect").<ref>{{harvnb|Brooker|1994|p=193}}. Brooker writes that "the term 'alienation' is an inadequate and even misleading translation of Brecht's ''Verfremdung''. The terms 'de-familiarisation' or 'estrangement', when understood as more than purely formal devices, give a more accurate sense of Brecht's intentions. A better term still would be 'de-[[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]]'".</ref> This involved, Brecht wrote, "stripping the event of its self-evident, familiar, obvious quality and creating a sense of astonishment and curiosity about them".<ref>Brecht, quoted by {{harvnb|Brooker|1994|p=191}}.</ref> To this end, Brecht employed techniques such as the actor's direct address to the audience, harsh and bright stage lighting, the use of songs to [[Interruptions (epic theater)|interrupt]] the action, explanatory placards, the transposition of text to the [[Grammatical person|third person]] or [[past tense]] in rehearsals, and speaking the stage directions out loud.{{sfn|Brecht|1964|p=138}}
In contrast to many other [[avant-garde]] approaches, however, Brecht had no desire to [[Anti-art|destroy art]] as an institution; rather, he hoped to "[[Refunctioning|re-function]]" the theater to a new social use. In this regard he was a vital participant in the [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] debates of his era—particularly over the "[[High culture|high art]]/popular culture" dichotomy—vying with the likes of [[Theodor W. Adorno]], [[György Lukács]], [[Ernst Bloch]], and developing a close friendship with [[Walter Benjamin]]. Brechtian theater articulated popular themes and forms with avant-garde formal experimentation to create a modernist realism that stood in sharp contrast both to its [[Realism (theater)|psychological]] and [[Socialist realism|socialist]] varieties. "Brecht's work is the most important and original in European drama since [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]] and [[August Strindberg|Strindberg]]," [[Raymond Williams]] argues,{{sfn|Williams|1993|p=277}} while {{ill|Peter Bürger|de|Peter Bürger (Literaturwissenschaftler)}} dubs him "the most important [[Materialism|materialist]] writer of our time."{{sfn|Bürger|1984|p=88}}
Brecht was also influenced by Chinese theater, and used its aesthetic as an argument for ''Verfremdungseffekt''. Brecht believed, "Traditional Chinese acting also knows the alienation [sic] effect, and applies it most subtly.{{sfn|Brecht|1964|p=91}} The [Chinese] performer portrays incidents of utmost passion, but without his delivery becoming heated."{{sfn|Brecht|1964|p=92}} Brecht attended a Chinese opera performance and was introduced to the famous Chinese opera performer [[Mei Lanfang]] in 1935.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=40246399|title=Bertolt Brecht in China and His Impact on Chinese Drama|first=Adrian|last=Hsia|journal=[[Comparative Literature Studies]]|volume=20|issue=2|date=Summer 1983|pages=231–245}}</ref> However, Brecht was sure to distinguish between Epic and Chinese theater. He recognized that the Chinese style was not a "transportable piece of technique",{{sfn|Brecht|1964|p=95}} and that epic theater sought to historicize and address social and political issues.{{sfn|Brecht|1964|p=96}}
Brecht used his poetry to criticize European culture, including [[Nazis]], and the German [[bourgeoisie]]. Brecht's poetry is marked by the effects of the First and [[Second World War]]s.
Throughout his theatric production, poems are incorporated into his plays with music. In 1951, Brecht issued a recantation of his apparent suppression of poetry in his plays with a note titled ''On Poetry and Virtuosity''. He writes:
<blockquote>We shall not need to speak of a play's poetry ... something that seemed relatively unimportant in the immediate past. It seemed not only unimportant, but misleading, and the reason was not that the poetic element had been sufficiently developed and observed, but that reality had been tampered with in its name ... we had to speak of a truth as distinct from poetry ... we have given up examining works of art from their poetic or artistic aspect, and got satisfaction from theatrical works that have no sort of poetic appeal ... Such works and performances may have some effect, but it can hardly be a profound one, not even politically. For it is a peculiarity of the theatrical medium that it communicates awarenesses and impulses in the form of pleasure: the depth of the pleasure and the impulse will correspond to the depth of the pleasure.
</blockquote>
Brecht's most influential poetry is featured in his ''Manual of Piety (Devotions)'', establishing him as a noted poet.
== Legacy ==
Brecht's widow, the actress [[Helene Weigel]], continued to manage the Berliner Ensemble until her death in 1971; it was primarily devoted to performing Brecht's plays.
Besides being an influential dramatist and poet, some scholars have stressed the significance of Brecht's original contributions in political and social philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book|title = An Introduction to the Social and Political Philosophy of Bertolt Brecht|last = Squiers|first = Anthony|publisher = Rodopi|year = 2014|isbn = 978-90-420-3899-8|location = Amsterdam}}</ref>
Brecht's collaborations with Kurt Weill have had some influence in rock music. The "[[Alabama Song]]" for example, originally published as a poem in Brecht's ''Hauspostille'' (1927) and set to music by Weill in ''Mahagonny'', has been recorded by [[The Doors]], on their self-titled debut album, as well as by [[David Bowie]] and various other bands and performers since the 1960s.
Brecht's son, [[Stefan Brecht]], became a poet and theater critic interested in New York's [[Experimental theater|avant-garde theater]].
Brecht's plays were a focus of the [[Schauspiel Frankfurt]] when [[Harry Buckwitz]] was general manager, including the world premiere of ''[[The Visions of Simone Machard|Die Gesichte der Simone Machard]]'' in 1957.<ref name="Jacobi">{{cite news
| last = Jacobi
| first = Johannes
| url = https://www.zeit.de/1957/11/reich-und-reich-gesellt-sich-gern/komplettansicht
| title = Zur Brecht-Uraufführung in Frankfurt: "Die Gesichte der Simone Machard"
| newspaper = [[Die Zeit]]
| location = Hamburg
| date = 14 March 1957
| language = de
| access-date = 16 August 2019
}}</ref>
== Collaborators and associates ==
Collective and collaborative working methods were inherent to Brecht's approach, as [[Fredric Jameson]] (among others) stresses. Jameson describes the creator of the work not as Brecht the individual, but rather as 'Brecht': a collective subject that "certainly seemed to have a distinctive style (the one we now call 'Brechtian') but was no longer personal in the bourgeois or [[Individualism|individualistic]] sense." During the course of his career, Brecht sustained many long-lasting creative relationships with other writers, composers, [[scenographer]]s, directors, [[dramaturg]]s and actors; the list includes: [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]], [[Margarete Steffin]], [[Ruth Berlau]], [[Slatan Dudow]], [[Kurt Weill]], [[Hanns Eisler]], [[Paul Dessau]], [[Caspar Neher]], [[Teo Otto]], [[Karl von Appen]], [[Ernst Busch (actor)|Ernst Busch]], [[Lotte Lenya]], [[Peter Lorre]], [[Therese Giehse]], [[Angelika Hurwicz]], [[Carola Neher]] and Helene Weigel herself. This is "theater as collective experiment [...] as something radically different from theater as expression or as experience."<ref>{{harvtxt|Jameson|1998|pp=10–11}}. See also the discussions of Brecht's collaborative relationships in the essays collected in {{harvnb|Thomson|Sacks|1994}}. John Fuegi's take on Brecht's collaborations, detailed in ''Brecht & Co.'' (New York: Grove, 1994; also known as ''The Life and Lies of Bertolt Brecht'') and summarized in his contribution to {{harvnb|Thomson|Sacks|1994|pp=104–116}}, offers a particularly negative perspective; Jameson comments "his book will remain a fundamental document for future students of the ideological confusions of Western intellectuals during the immediate post-Cold War years" {{harvnb|Jameson|1998|p=31}}; Olga Taxidou offers a critical account of Fuegi's project from a feminist perspective in {{harvnb|Taxidou|1995|pp=381–384}}.</ref>
== Works ==
=== Fiction ===
* ''Stories of Mr. Keuner'' (''{{Interlanguage link|Geschichten vom Herrn Keuner|de}}'')
* ''[[Threepenny Novel]]'' (''Dreigroschenroman'', 1934)
* ''The Business Affairs of Mr. Julius Caesar'' (''{{Interlanguage link|Die Geschäfte des Herrn Julius Caesar|de}}'', 1937–39, unfinished, published 1957)
=== Plays and screenplays ===
Entries show: ''English-language translation of title'' (''German-language title'') [year written] / [year first produced]<ref>The translations of the titles are based on the standard of the Brecht Collected Plays series (see bibliography, primary sources). Chronology provided through consultation with {{harvnb|Sacks|1994}} and {{harvnb|Willett|1967}}, preferring the former with any conflicts.</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* ''[[Baal (play)|Baal]]'' 1918/1923
* ''[[Drums in the Night]]'' (''Trommeln in der Nacht'') 1918–20/1922
* ''The Beggar'' (''Der Bettler oder Der tote Hund'') 1919/?
* ''[[A Respectable Wedding]]'' (''Die Kleinbürgerhochzeit'') 1919/1926
* ''[[Driving Out a Devil]]'' (''Er treibt einen Teufel aus'') 1919/?
* ''[[Lux in Tenebris]]'' 1919/?
* ''The Catch'' (''Der Fischzug'') 1919?/?
* ''[[Mysteries of a Barbershop]]'' (''Mysterien eines Friseursalons'') (screenplay) 1923
* ''[[In the Jungle of Cities]]'' (''Im Dickicht der Städte'') 1921–24/1923
* ''[[The Life of Edward II of England]]'' (''Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England'') 1924/1924
* ''[[Downfall of the Egotist Johann Fatzer]]'' (''Der Untergang des Egoisten Johnann Fatzer'') (fragments) 1926–30/1974
* ''[[Man Equals Man]]'' also ''A Man's A Man'' (''Mann ist Mann'') 1924–26/1926
* ''[[The Elephant Calf]]'' (''Das Elefantenkalb'') 1924–26/1926
* ''[[Mahagonny-Songspiel|Little Mahagonny]]'' (''Mahagonny-Songspiel'') 1927/1927
* ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' (''Die Dreigroschenoper'') 1928/1928
* ''[[The Flight across the Ocean]]'' (''Der Ozeanflug''); originally ''Lindbergh's Flight'' (''Lindberghflug'') 1928–29/1929
* ''[[The Baden-Baden Lesson on Consent]]'' (''Badener Lehrstück vom Einverständnis'') 1929/1929
* ''[[Happy End (musical)|Happy End]]'' (''Happy End'') 1929/1929
* ''[[Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny|The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny]]'' (''Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny'') 1927–29/1930
* ''[[Der Jasager|He Said Yes]]'' / ''[[Der Neinsager|He Said No]]'' (''Der Jasager''; ''Der Neinsager'') 1929–30/1930–?
* ''[[The Decision (play)|The Decision]]''/''The Measures Taken'' (''Die Maßnahme'') 1930/1930
* ''[[Saint Joan of the Stockyards]]'' (''Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe'') 1929–31/1959
* ''[[The Exception and the Rule]]'' (''Die Ausnahme und die Regel'') 1930/1938
* ''[[The Mother (Brecht play)|The Mother]]'' (''Die Mutter'') 1930–31/1932
* ''[[Kuhle Wampe]]'' (screenplay, with Ernst Ottwalt) 1931/1932
* ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins (ballet chanté)|The Seven Deadly Sins]]'' (''Die sieben Todsünden der Kleinbürger'') 1933/1933
* ''[[Round Heads and Pointed Heads]]'' (''Die Rundköpfe und die Spitzköpfe'') 1931–34/1936
* ''[[The Horatians and the Curiatians]]'' (''Die Horatier und die Kuriatier'') 1933–34/1958
* ''[[Fear and Misery of the Third Reich]]'' (''Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches'') 1935–38/1938
* ''[[Señora Carrar's Rifles]]'' (''Die Gewehre der Frau Carrar'') 1937/1937
* ''[[Life of Galileo]]'' (''Leben des Galilei'') 1937–39/1943
* ''[[How Much Is Your Iron?]]'' (''Was kostet das Eisen?'') 1939/1939
* ''[[Dansen]]'' (''Dansen'') 1939/?
* ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'' (''Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder'') 1938–39/1941
* ''[[The Trial of Lucullus]]'' (''Das Verhör des Lukullus'') 1938–39/1940
* ''[[The Judith of Shimoda]]'' (''Die Judith von Shimoda'') 1940
* ''[[Mr Puntila and his Man Matti]]'' (''Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti'') 1940/1948
* ''[[The Good Person of Szechwan]]'' (''Der gute Mensch von Sezuan'') 1939–42/1943
* ''[[The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui]]'' (''Der aufhaltsame Aufstieg des Arturo Ui'') 1941/1958
* ''[[Hangmen Also Die!]]'' (credited as Bert Brecht) (screenplay) 1942/1943
* ''[[The Visions of Simone Machard]]'' (''Die Gesichte der Simone Machard'') 1942–43/1957
* ''[[The Duchess of Malfi (Brecht)|The Duchess of Malfi]]'' 1943/1943
* ''[[Schweik in the Second World War]]'' (''Schweyk im Zweiten Weltkrieg'') 1941–43/1957
* ''[[The Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'' (''Der kaukasische Kreidekreis'') 1943–45/1948
* ''[[Antigone (Brecht)|Antigone]]'' (''Die Antigone des Sophokles'') 1947/1948
* ''[[The Days of the Commune]]'' (''Die Tage der Commune'') 1948–49/1956
* ''[[The Tutor (Brecht)|The Tutor]]'' (''Der Hofmeister'') 1950/1950
* ''[[Die Verurteilung des Lukullus|The Condemnation of Lucullus]]'' (''Die Verurteilung des Lukullus'') 1938–39/1951
* ''[[Report from Herrnburg]]'' (''Herrnburger Bericht'') 1951/1951
* ''[[Coriolanus (Brecht)|Coriolanus]]'' (''Coriolan'') 1951–53/1962
* ''[[The Trial of Joan of Arc at Rouen, 1431]]'' (''Der Prozess der Jeanne D'Arc zu Rouen, 1431'') 1952/1952
* ''[[Turandot (Brecht)|Turandot]]'' (''Turandot oder Der Kongreß der Weißwäscher'') 1953–54/1969
* ''[[Don Juan (Brecht)|Don Juan]]'' (''Don Juan'') 1952/1954
* ''[[Trumpets and Drums]]'' (''Pauken und Trompeten'') 1955/1955
{{Div col end}}
=== Theoretical works ===
* ''[[The Modern Theater Is the Epic Theater]]'' (1930)
* ''The Threepenny Lawsuit'' (''Der Dreigroschenprozess'') (written 1931; published 1932)
* ''The Book of Changes'' (fragment also known as ''Me-Ti''; written 1935–1939)
* ''[[The Street Scene]]'' (written 1938; published 1950)
* ''The Popular and the Realistic'' (written 1938; published 1958)
* ''Short Description of a New Technique of Acting which Produces an Alienation Effect'' (written 1940; published 1951)
* ''[[A Short Organum for the Theater]]'' ("Kleines Organon für das Theater", written 1948; published 1949)
* ''[[Messingkauf Dialogues|The Messingkauf Dialogues]]'' (''Dialoge aus dem Messingkauf'', published 1963)
=== Poetry ===
Brecht wrote hundreds of poems throughout his life.<ref>Note: Several of Brecht's poems were set by his collaborator [[Hanns Eisler]] in his ''[[Deutsche Sinfonie]]'', begun in 1935, but not premiered until 1959 (three years after Brecht's death).</ref> He began writing poetry as a young boy, and his first poems were published in 1914. His poetry was influenced by folk-ballads, French ''chansons'', and the poetry of [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[François Villon|Villon]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} The last collection of new poetry by Brecht published in his lifetime was the 1939 ''[[Svendborger Gedichte]]''.<ref>Bertolt Brecht, ''Poems 1913–1956'', ed. by [[John Willett]], [[Ralph Manheim]], and [[Erich Fried]] (London: Eyre Methuen, 1976), p. 507.</ref>
'''Some of Brecht's poems'''
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* 1940
* A Bad Time for Poetry
* [[Alabama Song]]
* Children's Crusade
* [[Children's Hymn]]
* Contemplating Hell
* From a German War Primer
* Germany
* Honoured Murderer of the People
* How Fortunate the Man with None
* Hymn to Communism
* I Never Loved You More
* I want to Go with the One I Love
* I'm Not Saying Anything Against Alexander
* In Praise of Communism
* In Praise of Doubt
* In Praise of Illegal Work
* In Praise of Learning
* In Praise of Study
* In Praise of the Work of the Party
* Legend of the Origin of the Book  [[Tao Te Ching|Tao-Te-Ching]] on [[Laozi|Lao-Tsu's]] Road into Exile
* [[Mack the Knife]]
* Mary
* My Young Son Asks Me
* Not What Was Meant
* O Germany, Pale Mother!
* On Reading a Recent Greek Poet
* On the Critical Attitude
* Parting
* {{interlanguage link|Fragen eines lesenden Arbeiters|de|Fragen eines lesenden Arbeiters}} (Questions from a Worker Who Reads)
* Radio Poem
* [[Reminiscence of Marie A.]]
* Send Me a Leaf
* [[Solidarity Song]]
* The Book Burning ([[The Burning of the Books]])
* The Exile of the Poets
* The Invincible Inscription
* The Mask of Evil
* The Sixteen-Year-Old Seamstress Emma Ries before the Magistrate
* [[Die Lösung|The Solution]]
* To Be Read in the Morning and at Night
* To Posterity
* To the Students and Workers of the Peasants' Faculty
* ''{{interlanguage link|An die Nachgeborenen|de|An die Nachgeborenen|vertical-align=sup}}'' (To Those Born After)
* [[United Front Song]]
* War Has Been Given a Bad Name
* What Has Happened?
{{Div col end}}
==Attribution==
{{WPAttribution}}
== Footnotes ==
<references>
</references>
== Primary sources ==
=== Essays, diaries, and journals ===
* {{Wikicite|ref={{harvid|Brecht|1964}}|reference=Brecht, Bertolt. 1964. ''Brecht on Theater: The Development of an Aesthetic''. Ed. and trans. [[John Willett]]. British edition. London: [[Methuen Publishing|Methuen]]. {{ISBN|0-413-38800-X}}. USA edition. New York: [[Hill and Wang]]. {{ISBN|0-8090-3100-0}}.}}
* {{cite book|last=Brecht|first=Bertolt|title=[[Messingkauf Dialogues]]|year=1965|translator=John Willett|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=0-413-38890-5}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Willett|editor-first=John|year=1990|title=Letters 1913–1956|translator=[[Ralph Manheim]]|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=0-413-51050-6}}
=== Drama, poetry, and prose ===
* ''Seven Plays by Bertolt Brecht'', 1961. Ed. Eric Bentley. New York: [[Grove Press]]. ''In the Swamp, A Man's A Man, Saint Joan of the Stockyards, Mother Courage, Galileo, The Good Woman of Setzuan, The Caucasian Chalk Circle''.  {{OCLC|294759}}
* Brecht, Bertolt. 1994a. ''Collected Plays: One''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. Bertolt Brecht: Plays, Poetry, Prose. London: Methuen. ''Baal, Drums in the Night, In the Jungle of Cities, The Life of Edward II in England'', and ''Five One-Act Plays''. {{ISBN|0-413-68570-5}}.
* 1994b. ''Collected Plays: Two''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. London: Methuen. ''Man Equals Man, the Elephant Calf, The Threepenny Opera, The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny'', and ''The Seven Deadly Sins''. {{ISBN|0-413-68560-8}}.
* 1997. ''Collected Plays: Three''. Ed. John Willett. London: Methuen. ''St Joan of the Stockyards, the Mother'', and ''Six Lehrstöcke'' (''Lindbergh's Flight, The Baden-Baden Lesson on Consent, He Said Yes / He Said No, The Decision, The Exception and the Rule'', and ''The Horatians and the Curiatians'') {{ISBN|0-413-70460-2}}.
* 2003b. ''Collected Plays: Four''. Ed. Tom Kuhn and John Willett. London: Methuen. ''Round heads and pointed heads, Dansen, How much is your iron?, The trial of Lucullus, Fear and misery of the Third Reich'', and ''Señora Carrar's rifles'' {{ISBN|0-413-70470-X}}.
* 1995. ''Collected Plays: Five''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. London: Methuen. ''Life of Galileo'' and ''Mother Courage and Her Children'' {{ISBN|0-413-69970-6}}.
* 1994c. ''Collected Plays: Six''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. London: Methuen. ''The Good Person of Szechwan, The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui'', and ''Mr Puntila and his Man Matti'' {{ISBN|0-413-68580-2}}.
* 1994d. ''Collected Plays: Seven''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. London: Methuen. ''The Visions of Simone Machard, Schweyk in the Second World War, The Caucasian Chalk Circle'', and ''The Duchess of Malfi'' {{ISBN|0-413-68590-X}}.
* 2004. ''Collected Plays: Eight.'' Ed. Tom Kuhn and David Constantine. London: Methuen. ''The Antigone of Sophocles, The Days of the Commune'', and ''Turandot or the Whitewasher's Congress'' {{ISBN|0-413-77352-3}}.
* 1972. ''Collected Plays: Nine.'' Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. New York: Vintage. ''The Tutor; Coriolanus; The Trial of Joan of Arc at Rouen, 1431; Don Juan''; and ''Trumpets and Drums'' {{ISBN|0-394-71819-4}}.
* 2000b. ''Poems: 1913–1956''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-15210-3}}.
* 2019. ''The Collected Poems of Bertolt Brecht''. Ed. Tom Kuhn and David Constantine. New York: [[Liveright Publishing]]. {{ISBN|9780871407672}}
* 1983. ''Short Stories: 1921–1946''. Ed. John Willett and Ralph Manheim. Trans. [[Yvonne Kapp]], Hugh Rorrison and Antony Tatlow. London and New York: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-52890-1}}.
* 2001. ''Stories of Mr. Keuner''. Trans. [[Martin Chalmers]]. San Francisco: City Lights. {{ISBN|0-87286-383-2}}.
=== Secondary sources ===
{{Div col|colwidth=45em}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Banham|editor-first=Martin|year=1998|chapter=Brecht, Bertolt|title=The Cambridge Guide to Theater|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-43437-8|page=129}}
* {{cite book|last=Benjamin|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Benjamin|year=1983|title=Understanding Brecht|translator=Anna Bostock|location=London and New York|publisher=Verso|isbn=0-902308-99-8}}
* {{harvc|last=Brooker|first=Peter|year=1994|chapter=Key Words in Brecht's Theory and Practice of Theater|in1=Thomson|in2=Sacks|pp=185–200}}
* {{cite book|last=Bürger|first=Peter|year=1984|title=Theory of the Avant-Garde|series=Theory and History of Literature Ser. 4|translator=Michael Shaw|location=Minneapolis|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=0-8166-1068-1}}
* {{cite journal|last=Culbert|first=David|date=March 1995|title=Joseph Goebbels and his diaries|type=review|journal=[[Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television]]|volume=15|number=1|pages=143–149|doi=10.1080/01439689500260091}}
* {{cite book|last=Ewen|first=Frederic|author-link=Frederic Ewen|year=1967|title=Bertolt Brecht: His Life, His Art and His Times|edition=Citadel Press Book|location=New York|publisher=Carol Publishing Group}}
* {{cite book|last=Hayman|first=Ronald|author-link=Ronald Hayman|year=1983|title=Brecht: A Biography|location=London|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn=0-297-78206-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Jameson|first=Fredric|author-link=Fredric Jameson|year=1998|title=Brecht and Method|location=London and New York|publisher=Verso|isbn=1-85984-809-5}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Kolocotroni|editor1-first=Vassiliki|editor2-last=Goldman|editor2-first=Jane|editor3-last=Taxidou|editor3-first=Olga|year=1998|title=Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=0-7486-0973-3}}
* {{cite journal|last=McDowell|first=W. Stuart|date=Winter 1977|title=A Brecht-Valentin Production: ''Mysteries of a Barbershop''|journal=[[Performing Arts Journal]]|volume=1|number=3|pages=2–14|doi=10.2307/3245245 |jstor=3245245 |s2cid=193991810 }}
* {{cite book|last=McDowell|first=W. Stuart|year=2000|chapter=Acting Brecht: The Munich Years|title=The Brecht Sourcebook|editor1=Carol Martin|editor2=Henry Bial|series=Worlds of Performance|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=71–83|isbn=0-415-20043-1}}
* {{harvc|last=Meech|first=Tony|year=1994|chapter=Brecht's Early Plays|in1=Thomson|in2=Sacks|pages=43–55}}
* {{harvc|last=Sacks|first=Glendyr|year=1994|chapter=A Brecht Calendar|in1=Thomson|in2=Sacks|pages=xvii–xxvii}}
* {{harvc|last=Schechter|first=Joel|year=1994|chapter=Brecht's Clowns: ''Man is Man'' and After|in1=Thomson|in2=Sacks|pages=68–78}}
* {{cite journal|last=Smith|first=Iris|year=1991|title=Brecht and the Mothers of Epic Theater|journal=[[Theater Journal]]|volume=43 |number=43|pages=491–505|doi=10.2307/3207978 |jstor=3207978 |hdl=1808/16482 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last=Taxidou|first=Olga|date=November 1995|title=Crude Thinking: John Fuegi and Recent Brecht Criticism|journal=[[New Theater Quarterly]]|volume=XI|number=44|pages=381–384|doi=10.1017/S0266464X00009350 |s2cid=191590706 }}
* {{harvc|last=Thomson|first=Peter|year=1994|chapter=Brecht's Lives|in1=Thomson|in2=Sacks|pages=22–39}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Thomson|editor1-first=Peter|editor2-last=Sacks|editor2-first=Glendyr|year=1994|title=The Cambridge Companion to Brecht|series=Cambridge Companions to Literature|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-41446-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Völker|first=Klaus|year=1976|title=Brecht: A Biography|translator=John Nowell|location=New York|publisher=Seabury Press}} Translation of {{ill|Klaus Völker|de}}: ''Bertolt Brecht, Eine Biographie.'' Munich and Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag. {{ISBN|0-8164-9344-8}}.
* {{cite book|last=Willett|first=John|author-link=John Willett|year=1967|title=The Theater of Bertolt Brecht: A Study from Eight Aspects|edition=3rd revised|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=0-413-34360-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Willett|first=John|year=1978|title=Art and Politics in the Weimar Period: The New Sobriety 1917–1933|location=New York|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=0-306-80724-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Willett|first=John|year=1998|title=Brecht in Context: Comparative Approaches|edition=revised|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=0-413-72310-0}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Willett|editor1-first=John|editor2-last=Manheim|editor2-first=Ralph|editor2-link=Ralph Manheim|year=1970|chapter=Introduction|title=Collected Plays: 'One' by Bertolt Brecht|series=Bertolt Brecht: Plays, Poetry and Prose|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=0-416-03280-X|pages=vii–xvii}}
* {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond|author-link=Raymond Williams|year=1993|title=Drama from Ibsen to Brecht|location=London|publisher=Hogarth|isbn=0-7012-0793-0|pages=277–290}}
* {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Elizabeth|year=1989|title=Postmodern Brecht: A Re-Presentation|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-02330-0}}
{{Div col end}}
==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* [Anon.] 1952. "Brecht Directs". In ''Directors on Directing: A Source Book to the Modern Theater''. Ed. Toby Cole and [[Helen Krich Chinoy]]. Rev. ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1963. {{ISBN|0-02-323300-1}}. 291- [Account of Brecht in rehearsal from anonymous colleague published in ''Theaterarbeit'']
* {{cite book|last1=Bleitrach|first1=Danielle|author1-link=Danielle Bleitrach|last2=Gehrke|first2=Richard|year=2015|title=Bertolt Brecht et Fritz Lang : le nazisme n'a jamais été éradiqué|publisher=LettMotif|isbn=978-2-3671-6122-8|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|last=Davies|first=Steffan|author2=Ernest Schonfield|title=Alfred Döblin: Paradigms of Modernism|year=2009|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|location=Berlin and New York|isbn=978-3-11-021769-8|editor=Davies, Steffan |editor2=Schonfield, Ernest|ref=none}}
* Demčišák, Ján. 2012. "Queer Reading von Brechts Frühwerk". Marburg: Tectum Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3-8288-2995-4}}.
* Demetz, Peter, ed. 1962. "From the Testimony of Berthold Brecht: Hearings of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, 30 October 1947". ''Brecht: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Twentieth Century Views Ser. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|0-13-081760-0}}. 30–42.
* Diamond, Elin. 1997. ''Unmaking Mimesis: Essays on Feminism and Theater''. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-01229-5}}.
* [[Terry Eagleton|Eagleton, Terry]]. 1985. "Brecht and Rhetoric". ''New Literary History'' 16.3 (Spring). 633–638.
* Eaton, Katherine B. "Brecht's Contacts with the Theater of Meyerhold". in ''Comparative Drama'' 11.1 (Spring 1977)3–21. Reprinted in 1984. ''Drama in the Twentieth Century'' ed. C. Davidson. New York: AMS Press, 1984. {{ISBN|0-404-61581-3}}. 203–221. 1979. "''Die Pionierin'' und ''Feld-Herren'' vorm ''Kreidekreis''. Bemerkungen zu Brecht und Tretjakow". in ''Brecht-Jahrbuch 1979''. Ed. J. Fuegi, R. Grimm, J. Hermand. Suhrkamp, 1979. 1985 19–29. ''The Theater of Meyerhold and Brecht''. Connecticut and New York: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-24590-8}}.
* Eddershaw, Margaret. 1982. "Acting Methods: Brecht and Stanislavski". In ''Brecht in Perspective''. Ed. Graham Bartram and Anthony Waine. London: Longman. {{ISBN|0-582-49205-X}}. 128–144.
* Esslin, Martin. 1960. ''Brecht: The Man and His Work''. New York: Doubleday. {{ISBN|0-393-00754-5}}, first published in 1959 as ''Brecht: A Choice of Evils''. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.
* Fuegi, John. 1994. "The Zelda Syndrome: Brecht and Elisabeth Hauptmann". In Thomson and Sacks (1994, 104–116).
* Fuegi, John. 2002. ''Brecht and Company: Sex, Politics, and the Making of the Modern Drama.'' New York: Grove. {{ISBN|0-8021-3910-8}}.
* Giles, Steve. 1998. "Marxist Aesthetics and Cultural Modernity in ''Der Dreigroschenprozeß''". ''Bertolt Brecht: Centenary Essays.'' Ed. Steve Giles and Rodney Livingstone. German Monitor 41. Amsterdam and Atlanta, Georgia: Rodopi. {{ISBN|90-420-0309-X}}. 49–61.
* Giles, Steve. 1997. ''Bertolt Brecht and Critical Theory: Marxism, Modernity and the Threepenny Lawsuit''. Bern: Lang. {{ISBN|3-906757-20-X}}.
* Glahn, Philip, 2014. ''Bertolt Brecht''. London: Reaktion Books. {{ISBN|978 1 78023 262 1}}.
* Jacobs, Nicholas and Prudence Ohlsen, eds. 1977. ''Bertolt Brecht in Britain.'' London: IRAT Services Ltd and TQ Publications. {{ISBN|0-904844-11-0}}.
* Katz, Pamela. 2015. ''The Partnership: Brecht, Weill, Three Women, and Germany on the Brink''. New York: Nan A. Talese/Doubleday. {{ISBN|978-0-385-53491-8}}.
* Krause, Duane. 1995. "An Epic System". In ''Acting (Re)considered: Theories and Practices''. Ed. Phillip B. Zarrilli. 1st ed. Worlds of Performance Ser. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-09859-9}}. 262–274.
* Leach, Robert. 1994. "''Mother Courage and Her Children''". In {{harvnb|Thomson|Sacks|1994|pp=128–138}}.
* Giuseppe Leone, "Bertolt Brecht, ripropose l'eterno conflitto dell'intellettuale fra libertà di ricerca e condizionamenti del potere", su "Ricorditi...di me" in "Lecco 2000", Lecco, June 1998.
* {{cite book |last1=Lyon |first1=James K. |title=Bertolt Brecht in America |date=1983 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691013947}}
* McBride, Patrizia. "De-Moralizing Politics: Brecht's Early Aesthetics." ''Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte'' 82.1 (2008): 85–111.
* [[John Milfull|Milfull, John]]. 1974. ''From Baal to Keuner. The "Second Optimism" of Bertolt Brecht'', Bern and Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
* Mitter, Schomit. 1992. "To Be And Not To Be: Bertolt Brecht and Peter Brook". ''Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-06784-7}}. 42–77.
* [[Heiner Müller|Müller, Heiner]]. 1990. ''Germania''. Trans. Bernard Schütze and Caroline Schütze. Ed. Sylvère Lotringer. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents Ser. New York: Semiotext(e). {{ISBN|0-936756-63-2}}.
* [[Jan Needle|Needle, Jan]] and Peter Thomson. 1981. ''Brecht''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Oxford: Basil Blackwell. {{ISBN|0-226-57022-3}}.
* [[G. W. Pabst|Pabst, G. W.]] 1984. ''The Threepenny Opera''. Classic Film Scripts Series. London: Lorrimer. {{ISBN|0-85647-006-6}}.
* Parker, Stephen. 2014. ''Bertolt Brecht: A Literary Life''. London: Methuen Drama. {{ISBN|978-1-4081-5562-2}}.
* Reinelt, Janelle. 1990. "Rethinking Brecht: Deconstruction, Feminism, and the Politics of Form". ''The Brecht Yearbook'' 15. Ed. Marc Silberman et al. Madison, Wisconsin: The International Brecht Society, [[University of Wisconsin Press]]. 99–107.
* Reinelt, Janelle. 1994. "A Feminist Reconsideration of the Brecht/Lukács Debate". ''Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory'' 7.1 (issue 13). 122–139.
* Rouse, John. 1995. "Brecht and the Contradictory Actor". In ''Acting (Re)considered: A Theoretical and Practical Guide''. Ed. Phillip B. Zarrilli. 2nd ed. Worlds of Performance Series. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-26300-X}}. 248–259.
* {{cite book|editor-last=Silberman|editor-first=Marc|title=Brecht on Film and Radio|year=2000|translator=Marc Silberman|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=978-1-4081-6987-2|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Silberman|editor-first=Marc|title=Brecht on Art and Politics|year=2003|translator=Marc Silberman|location=London|publisher=Methuen|isbn=0-413-75890-7|ref=none}}
* [[Sternberg, Fritz]]. 1963. ''Der Dichter und die Ratio: Erinnerungen an Bertolt Brecht''. Göttingen: Sachse & Pohl.
* [[Péter Szondi|Szondi, Péter]]. 1965. ''Theory of the Modern Drama.'' Ed. and trans. Michael Hays. Theory and History of Literature Series. 29. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987. {{ISBN|0-8166-1285-4}}.
* Taxidou, Olga. 2007. ''Modernism and Performance: Jarry to Brecht''. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|1-4039-4101-7}}.
* Thomson, Peter. 2000. "Brecht and Actor Training: On Whose Behalf Do We Act?" In ''Twentieth Century Actor Training''. Ed. Alison Hodge. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-19452-0}}. 98–112.
* [[Carl Weber (theater director)|Weber, Carl]]. 1984. "The Actor and Brecht, or: The Truth Is Concrete: Some Notes on Directing Brecht with American Actors". ''The Brecht Yearbook'' 13: 63–74.
* Weber, Carl. 1994. "Brecht and the Berliner Ensemble&nbsp;– the Making of a Model". In Thomson and Sacks (1994, 167–184).
* {{cite book|editor-last=Willett|editor-first=John|editor-link=John Willett|year=1993|title=Journals 1934–1955|translator=Hugh Rorrison|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-91282-2|ref=none}}
* Witt, Hubert, ed. 1975. ''Brecht As They Knew Him''. Trans. John Peet. London: Lawrence and Wishart; New York: International Publishers. {{ISBN|0-85315-285-3}}.
* Wizisla, Erdmut. 2009. ''Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht: The Story of a Friendship''. Translated by Christine Shuttleworth. London / New Haven: Libris / Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-870352-78-9}} [Contains a complete translation of the newly discovered minutes of the meetings around the putative journal ''Krise und Kritik'' (1931)].
* Womack, Peter (1979), "Brecht: The Search for an Audience", in Bold, Christine (ed.), ''[[Cencrastus]]'', no. 1, Autumn 1979, pp.&nbsp;24–28, {{issn|0264-0856}}
* Youngkin, Stephen D. 2005. ''The Lost One: A Life of Peter Lorre''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2360-7}}. [Contains a detailed discussion of the personal and professional friendship between Brecht and film actor [[Peter Lorre]].]
{{div col end}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{IMDb name|0106517}}
*{{IBDB name|4511}}
*{{IOBDB name|1548}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Bertolt Brecht}}
* [https://brechtguide.library.wisc.edu/ "Brecht's Works in English: A Bibliography"], [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] Libraries
* [https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/ABrechtYearbook "''The Brecht Yearbook''"], University of Wisconsin–Madison Libraries
* [https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/AM3HLL3GNJRCAF8S "''Communications from the International Brecht Society'' (1971–2014)"], University of Wisconsin–Madison Libraries
* [[hdl:1903.1/7849|International Brecht Society records]], [[University of Maryland Libraries]]
* [https://vault.fbi.gov/Bertolt%20Brecht%20/ FBI files on Bertolt Brecht]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080907042404/http://mobydicks.com/lecture/Brechthall/messages/70.html ''A history of Mack the Knife'' by Joseph Mach at Brechthall]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/002421}}

Latest revision as of 08:09, 26 April 2024

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