Korean War of 1592-1598

The Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598) comprised a major war between Japan and the alliance of China and Korea. The land and naval battles took place almost entirely on the Korean peninsula and its nearby waters; Korea was devastated. The Japanese leader Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s main objective was to conquer China; he fought Korea when it denied him passage. The war consisted of two main invasions from Japan – the first in 1592 and 1593, and the second from 1597 to 1598. In the first invasion 200,000 Japanese overran almost all of Korea, but then were forced back by a Chinese counterattack. The war finally ended late in 1598 after the death of Hideyoshi as the Japanese withdrew.

The war is known by several English titles, including the Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, in context of Hideyoshi’s biography; the Seven Year War, in reference to the war’s duration; and the Imjin War, in reference to the first year of the war in Korean (See Sexagenery Cycle).

Background

East Asia and the Chinese Tributary System

In the late 16th century, the Ming Dynasty of China dominated the East Asian geopolitics. China established hegemony over the smaller neighboring countries in form of the tributary system. In practice, the tributary states maintained complete autonomy, and they sent ambassadors periodically to the imperial court in China to pay homage and to exchange gifts with the Chinese government officials. Many of the tributary states received the exclusive privilege from China to participate in the lucrative international trade within the tributary system. China justified the tributary system with the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, that the Chinese Emperor rules to the benefit of mankind by decree from Heaven. Many Asian countries, including Korea, voluntarily joined the tributary system in pursuit of the legal tally trade and the legitimacy in their rule by the Mandate of Heaven.

While Japan never officially submitted to the tributary system, China granted Japan the right to engage in a limited tributary trade, which China considered as a form of tribute from Japan. The two treaties, in 1404 and 1434, that admitted Japan into the tributary trade required Japan to police its waters to protect the trade routes from the wako pirates. However, as the Japanese lords failed to effectively control its piracy, China expelled Japan from the tributary system in 1547. The trade issue would emerge again, during the wartime negotiations between Japan and China, as a non-provocative excuse from the Japanese for their first invasion of Korea.

China considered Korea as a key asset to its tributary system. Geopolitically, China needed the alliance with Korea in order to outflank the hostile Jurchen tribes in Manchuria. Also, Korea added to China's efforts to protect the sea from the Japanese pirates. Culturally, the Chinese and the Koreans considered themselves the pinnacles of civilization, similarly to today's cross-national cultural identities (such as "the West") based on scientific and technological achievements. The very strict Confucian ideologies that imbued the two countries excluded the foreign customs and learnings as immoral and barbaric.